Ceramic Production in Southeast Asia: Historical Periods, Styles, and Techniques

Early Ceramics in Southeast Asia: Trade and Production

Ceramics have a long history in Southeast Asia. People were making pottery here long before written records. The oldest known ceramic exports to this region started arriving around 100 BCE. These early imports help show how Southeast Asia first connected with bigger powers like India and China through trade.

During this time, India was producing fine pottery known as "Fine Wares." One of the best examples is called Northern Black Polished Ware. It was high-quality and widely traded. Archaeologists have found this type of ceramic at Khao Sam Kaeo, located on the narrow strip between Thailand and Malaysia. That area likely acted as a major stop for traders moving between seas.

In Vietnam, at a site called Go Cam near Hoi An, researchers found pieces of Han dynasty clay sealings. These came from the Western Han period in China. This find proves that Vietnam had early contact with the Chinese through trade or other forms of exchange.

Rouletted Ware and Early Indian Influence

From about 1 CE to 200 CE, a new style of pottery reached Southeast Asia. It came from southern India and is called Romano-Indian Rouletted Ware. This name comes from the Roman-style decoration used on it. Indian potters copied this method and blended it with local techniques.

This ware has been uncovered in a number of places across the region. It showed up in central Thailand at Chansen, again at Khao Sam Kaeo, and further south in what is now Vietnam, where the ancient kingdom of Funan once stood. It's also been found along the central coast of Vietnam at Tra Kieu near Danang, and even on the island of Bali.

These ceramics weren't made to be traded widely like mass-market goods. They weren’t major exports, but they did travel. The presence of these pots shows that connections between these areas were strong. Pottery tends to last a long time underground, so these finds help us track how early trade worked.

Khmer Ceramics and the Rise of Glazed Stoneware

In 802 CE, the Angkor Empire officially began in Cambodia. Not long after, we start seeing real advances in local ceramic technology. By the time King Indravarman I ruled, around 877 to 889 CE, Cambodia had started producing its own glazed stoneware. His capital was Hariharalaya, near what’s now known as Roluos.

The most important early kiln sites were found on the slopes of Phnom Kulen, northeast of Angkor. These Cambodian kilns were the first in Southeast Asia to fire pottery at extremely high temperatures. The process allowed the clay to fuse into a dense, stone-like material. This method is called sintering.

The Khmers were the first outside of China to figure out how to make this type of stoneware. Their work was tough, less porous, and much more durable than regular low-fired pottery. When glazed, the surface became smooth and sealed, which made it both practical and decorative. These glazes also helped keep bacteria out, making them good for storing food or liquids.

One stoneware bottle, found at a burial site called Srah Srang, dates back to the 10th century. Its neck was broken off during a ritual before it was buried. No one knows exactly why this was done, but it was likely symbolic.

The Thnal Mrech Kiln and Ongoing Khmer Pottery

Around 880 CE, the Thnal Mrech Kiln No. 1 was likely in use. It’s also located on Phnom Kulen. This kiln might have been active through much of the Angkor period, helping to supply the region with glazed stoneware.

These Cambodian ceramics mark a change from imported goods to strong local production. By mastering high-fire techniques, Khmer potters created a new standard for pottery in the region. Their influence lasted for centuries, laying the foundation for a distinct Southeast Asian ceramic tradition.

From early trade goods to advanced stoneware, the story of Southeast Asian ceramics reveals how this region grew into a major force in global exchange and local craftsmanship.

What "Kulen" Means in Khmer Ceramics

In ceramic research, the word "Kulen" is used to describe all Khmer pottery with a yellow or green glaze. The glaze has a thin, watery look and likely comes from wood ash mixed with iron-rich material. This style of glazing became a signature of Khmer pottery across many kiln sites.

Early Kilns Near Roluos: Bang Kong and Thnal Mrech

The Bang Kong kiln site sits near Roluos in Cambodia. It was excavated in 2008 and might actually be older than the better-known Thnal Mrech kilns. Radiocarbon tests place it between 943 and 975 CE. This puts its activity close to the beginning of Angkor’s rise in power.

Another major kiln in the same region, Thnal Mrech Kiln No. 2, dates to around 880 CE. It’s one of the largest ever found in the Angkor area. Builders reshaped an old dike to create its floor, firebox, and base walls. The top part, likely including a chimney, has long since vanished. Multiple radiocarbon dates confirm this kiln was active during the early 1000s.

Khmer Ceramics Found in Northeast Thailand

Between 1030 and 1060 CE, Khmer rule extended into what is now northeast Thailand. At a temple site called Prasat Ban Phluang, around 4000 pieces of glazed pottery were found during a 1970s restoration project. Archaeologists Roxanna Brown and Vance Childress studied these fragments. The discovery shows how Khmer ceramic techniques spread far beyond Cambodia's modern borders.

Glazed Plaques in Bagan, Myanmar

In the middle of the 11th century, temples in Bagan, Myanmar began using lead-glazed ceramic tiles. One example from the Dhammayazika temple shows a scene from the Dhamma Jataka, a Buddhist tale about the past lives of the Buddha. These tiles weren’t just decorative. They helped teach religious stories and protected the temples from wind and rain.

Although we know little about the exact sites where these tiles were made, it’s likely that glazed ceramics were produced in Bagan between the 11th and 13th centuries. Some researchers even think the Burmese tradition of glazing pottery could go back to the 600s. That’s based on the word "kalathapura," meaning "pot-making area," which appears in several old inscriptions.

Funerary Ceramics at Srah Srang

Between 1080 and 1107 CE, at the burial site of Srah Srang in Angkor, another double gourd-shaped bottle was found. It had human-like features and matched earlier finds. This design likely appeared around that time and was used in funeral rituals. Its shape and place of burial suggest a symbolic purpose, though the exact meaning remains unclear.

The End of Khmer Ceramic Production

By around 1200 CE, the quality production of Khmer ceramics came to a stop. This decline may be linked to the fall of Angkor in 1177 CE, when Champa forces invaded. After that, Khmer pottery never fully recovered its earlier quality or output.

Thai Ceramics Rise After Ramkhamhaeng's Visit to China

The year 1292 CE is tied to the story of Thai King Ramkhamhaeng and his trips to China. According to legend, he brought back Chinese potters after visiting the Yuan court in Beijing. Not long after, the Sukhothai kingdom set up a major pottery center in north-central Thailand. That marked the beginning of a strong ceramic tradition in the area, inspired by Chinese methods but shaped by local styles.

Angkor in Decline and Zhou Daguan’s Visit

By 1296, Angkor had just taken a hard hit. Sukhothai had attacked, the Khmer king had died, and a power change was underway. Right after, a Mongol mission showed up. They came to pressure the new ruler into paying tribute. One of the Chinese envoys, Zhou Daguan, ended up writing the most detailed account of Angkor that still survives today. He called it Zhenla fengtu ji, or Description of Cambodia, and finished it in 1297 after spending about six months there.

Zhou wasn’t in Cambodia to trade, so his report didn’t go deep into commerce. Still, he included a few trade-related details. He said Cambodians were interested in Chinese goods like gold, silver, silk, tin, lacquered trays, and green porcelain from places like Quanzhou and Chuzhou. That region was part of Longquan, which produced huge amounts of celadon during the Yuan dynasty.

He also noted that people in Angkor served rice using Chinese copper trays or earthenware. What he meant by "Chinese earthenware" isn’t clear. He could have been talking about pottery or ceramics in general.

Ceramics like these help researchers understand more about Angkor’s economy and social life. Chinese ceramics have been found all over Angkor, but not much has been published about how many, what kinds, or how they were spread out across the region.

Rise of the Kalong Kilns in Northern Thailand

By 1300 CE, the Kalong kilns had started operating in northern Thailand. These sites were discovered back in 1933, but they still hadn’t been studied much when Roxanna Brown wrote her thesis on Southeast Asian ceramics in the 1970s.

She noted that Kalong ceramics stood out because of their fine white clay, which might have been why the kilns were built there in the first place. This high-quality material helped create pottery that many still consider the best Thai ceramics ever made. Kalong wares were neatly shaped, had wide bases, and showed strong craftsmanship from top to bottom.

Sukhothai Wares and Glaze Techniques

Around the same time, in north central Thailand, Sukhothai potters were already producing glazed ceramics on a large scale. The earliest pieces had black, green, and brown glazes made from wood ash. These glazes looked similar to older Khmer techniques, which suggests the Khmers might have passed on some of their knowledge, though no one can say for sure.

Roxanna Brown identified four main types of Sukhothai ceramics: plain stoneware, plain earthenware, solid white-glazed pieces, and decorated items with underglaze black or brown designs. That last category is what Sukhothai kilns became famous for.

One of the most well-known patterns from this period is the underglaze black fish motif. Early examples of these fish or flower designs don’t seem to have a clear origin. But they became common across the region. You can find these decorated pieces at sites like the Tak Om Koi burial ground, which sits near the Thai-Myanmar border.

By this time, northern Thailand had become a center of ceramic innovation, blending local styles with outside influence and setting a new standard for the region’s pottery.

Early Thai Export Ceramics and the Turiang Shipwreck

Thai ceramics made a clear appearance in early international trade. A good example is the Turiang shipwreck, which dates between 1304 and 1440. This wreck carried a mix of wares from China, Vietnam, and Thailand. Among them, Sukhothai ceramics showed up in large numbers. That points to Thailand being part of the export scene early on, well before the peak of the Ming trading period.

Sawankhalok Ceramics and Kiln Production in Central Thailand

By the mid-1300s, ceramic production in central Thailand was booming. The name Sawankhalok refers to a broad area filled with hundreds of active kilns. While it’s often used alongside the name Si Satchanalai, Sawankhalok covers more ground and includes many other kiln sites beyond just Si Satchanalai itself.

Potters at these kilns made a wide range of styles. They created unglazed pieces and also produced glazed wares in white, black, brown, olive, and celadon tones. Some of the most unique items featured brown glazes carved with patterns, then inlaid with white to highlight the designs. One standout technique was underglaze iron decoration, which used black iron pigment to paint simple designs under a clear glaze.

Sawankhalok clay had a distinct look. It was finer than Sukhothai clay and full of tiny dark specks, mostly black, due to the iron content. Sometimes the specks came out red or silver. These potters mostly made basic forms like jars, bottles, bowls, and plates. The style leaned practical, not flashy.

One common design from the early period featured plates with fish painted on the sloped inner walls and flower motifs in the center. Examples of this exact decoration have turned up in the Turiang shipwreck, which is dated around 1370.

Some jars and dishes used scroll patterns with spiky leaves, similar to what’s seen on Chinese Yuan dynasty ceramics. But instead of blue cobalt, Thai potters used black iron pigment. Cobalt mines existed nearby in Yunnan, but the Thais didn’t use it. Vietnamese potters, on the other hand, did use cobalt for underglaze blue from the 1400s onward.

The Rise of Sawankhalok Celadon and Its Spread Through Trade

Around 1400, celadon ware from Sawankhalok started to appear. These green-glazed ceramics were a major export item. Unfortunately, the kiln sites have been disturbed over the years, so the exact timeline is hard to pin down through excavation.

One of the earliest exports from Thailand included iron-painted underglaze designs, especially floral and fish patterns. The Turiang shipwreck had plates with these painted motifs. Later wrecks, such as the Nanyang (around 1380), the Longquan (around 1400), and the Royal Nanhai (around 1460), included celadon plates from Sawankhalok. These green wares were in high demand until the late 1400s.

After 1488, during the Hongzhi era, Burmese celadon started to take over on the trade routes. Thai celadon bowls and ring-handled jars kept showing up into the early 1500s, but their presence started to fade.

Final Phase of Sawankhalok Ware and Export Change

By the early 1500s, Sawankhalok ceramics had changed again. Covered boxes with black underglaze decoration made a comeback, while celadon mostly disappeared. These later pieces were found in shipwrecks from the reigns of Emperor Zhengde (1505 to 1521) and Jiajing (1522 to 1566). That style remained the main export look until around 1584, when production came to a stop.

Sawankhalok ceramics have been found in big numbers in the Philippines too. Sites like Calatagan, dating to the 14th and 15th centuries, turned up a lot of these wares. On the mainland, they also reached Angkor. Based on studies at the royal palace site, Thai ceramics there came after 1350. Compared to Vietnam, where ceramic exports happened in two separate bursts, Thai exports continued almost nonstop from 1400 through to the late 1500s.

Myanmar’s Twante Kilns and the Start of Burmese Glazed Ceramics

In the late 14th century, the Twante kilns in Myanmar were founded. For a long time, people thought Burma had no history of glazed ceramics. That view has started to change. These kilns mark the beginning of what is now seen as a deeper ceramic tradition in the region. Though still less understood than Thai or Vietnamese production, Myanmar's ceramic history is finally being uncovered.

Tak Om Koi Burials and Lead-Glazed Earthenware

Excavations at Tak Om Koi changed how archaeologists viewed ceramic production in that part of Thailand. Burials from the site revealed striking examples of green-and-white earthenware, with shapes and patterns that kept getting more interesting as more pieces were uncovered. These finds suggested there had to be local kiln sites tied to this unique style.

This theory gained strength after the 1998 discovery of kiln remains at Twante, southwest of Yangon, and Lagunbyee, a bit further north. The ceramics from both these Burmese sites matched the Tak Om Koi wares closely. The clay bodies looked similar, and the glaze contained lead, which melts at a lower temperature than other types of glaze. That’s an important detail, because it points to shared methods or influence across regions.

One dish from Twante stood out. It used a green-and-white palette typical of that site. Scholar Roxanna Brown linked this look to Middle Eastern styles. She suggested three things may have come from that influence: the green color from lead-based glaze, the decorative use of roundels, and the choice to use high-fired earthenware instead of stoneware. That mix made the pieces both functional and visually unique.

Bat Trang: Vietnam’s Ceramics Hub

The name Bat Trang first shows up in Vietnamese records from 1352, but ceramic production wasn’t officially recorded until 1435. By then, it was already a key center for pottery. In the 15th century, Bat Trang wares were even sent to China as tribute. That kind of diplomatic exchange speaks to their high value and quality.

There’s a well-known legend about how Bat Trang got its ceramic skills. It says three Vietnamese scholars went to China during the Northern Song Dynasty. While there, they visited a ceramics workshop in Guangdong. Each scholar returned home with a different piece of technical knowledge. One brought back the recipe for white glaze. Another learned to make red glaze. The third passed along the method for dark yellow glaze. These techniques laid the foundation for Bat Trang’s long pottery tradition.

As Buddhism made a comeback in Vietnam during the 1500s and 1600s, Bat Trang kilns began to reflect that change. Many of the ceramics made in this period were for religious use. Censers, which hold burning incense during rituals, became a common product. These were crafted at the Bat Trang kiln complex in Gia Lam, near Hanoi, alongside other traditional wares.

Vietnamese Blue-and-White Ceramics and Global Reach

By 1450, Vietnamese ceramics had taken another big step. A vase made by a woman named Bui, inscribed with her name, was exported all the way to Turkey. This object tells us that Vietnam was not only making fine ceramics but also sending them far beyond Asia.

Around this same time, a new decorative style entered Vietnam. Blue underglaze on white clay, the same method made famous by Chinese porcelain, started showing up. This likely came after the Ming occupation of Vietnam in 1407. Chinese influence was strong during this period. Between 1405 and 1433, Admiral Zheng He was also traveling by sea, spreading Chinese goods and ideas, including pottery.

With cobalt now available, the traditional black iron glaze began to fade. Potters started using the blue mineral to decorate their wares. The shapes often stayed the same as those from the 14th century, but the surface designs changed. Lotus scrolls, animal figures, cloud patterns, and overlapping petals became common.

According to Brown, the blue didn’t completely replace iron right away. For a while, potters used both. Some pieces from that time even show both pigments on a single dish. One example features a chrysanthemum in blue at the center, surrounded by rings of black iron underglaze. This blend of styles shows how Vietnamese potters adapted quickly to new materials while still holding onto older traditions.

These ceramics from Bat Trang and beyond offer clear proof of how trade, politics, religion, and outside influence shaped pottery across Southeast Asia. The designs changed, but the skill and innovation stayed constant.

Pottery Traditions in Bat Trang: Female Potters and Family Workshops

In Bat Trang, Vietnam, pottery was not just a man’s trade. Women also worked in the kilns, often alongside their husbands. Some pieces were even signed, showing that the craft was sometimes a family effort. One example stands out from the 15th century. A potter signed her name as “Bui” on a ceramic piece, and sources confirm the name belonged to a woman. This signature appears on a vase made in 1450, which is now kept in the Topkapi Saray Museum in Istanbul. It’s rare to find a woman’s name on ceramics from that time, making it a key piece of history. It also shows that pottery in Bat Trang included personal expression and that women played a real part in the industry.

Cham Ceramics at Go Sanh: The Binh Dinh Kilns

Go Sanh, which means “pottery mound,” sits in Binh Dinh province in central Vietnam. This area once belonged to the Cham people. The Cham were a Malayo-Polynesian group who built strong kingdoms and often clashed with both the Khmer and the Vietnamese. By the 15th century, their power began to fade, but their ceramics left a clear mark.

The ceramics from Go Sanh fall into three main types. The first are small saucers with a green or blue-grey glaze. Inside, they have a stacking ring that was left unglazed. The exposed clay on these rings is grey, which helps tie them to this site.

The second group is celadon dishes. These bowls have a soft green glaze, but much of it has worn away with time. You can still spot the glaze where it pooled in dips and creases. The clay is similar to the first group, and the foot of the bowl is left bare, showing that same grey tone.

The third type includes brown-glazed vessels. These come in all kinds of shapes and are made from light, reddish-orange clay. They feel lighter than they look. Decoration is usually minimal. Most pieces are plain, but larger storage jars sometimes show carved or added designs pressed into the surface.

Cham Exports and the Cardamom Cave Finds in Cambodia

In 1450, a large batch of ceramics turned up in the Cardamom Mountains in western Cambodia. They were found inside burial caves. Among them were Chinese and Thai wares, but also pieces that point to ongoing Khmer ceramic production in the 15th century. Though it’s hard to say exactly where each jar came from, the techniques and forms suggest some were made locally by Khmer potters still working with glazed stoneware.

One burial site held about 60 complete jars, along with many broken pieces. Some jars were clearly Chinese. One tall brown-glazed stoneware jar, about 45 centimeters high, had a stamped Chinese character for "treasure." Most of the jars followed a shared design: roughly 50 centimeters tall, wide mouths, no decoration except shoulder lugs and carved lines around the neck. The glaze was a watery dark green that stopped just above the foot. The exposed clay near the base turned a deep purplish red in the kiln.

These jars aren’t common in records or archaeological reports. Their closest match might be pieces from the Cheung Ek site near Phnom Penh, though they remain largely unknown in broader ceramic studies. The find points to a mix of regional trade and local innovation during a time of major change across Southeast Asia.

Stacked Bowls and Mid-15th Century Ceramic Trade

One group of finds included a full stack of twelve green-glazed porcelain bowls from Si Satchanalai, a major Thai kiln site active in the 15th century. These bowls are a textbook example of Thai celadon production from that time. Alongside them was another bowl decorated with a double vajra motif in cobalt blue on a white base. That design is typical of mid-15th-century Chinese export porcelain. The mix of Thai and Chinese ceramics in the same context shows how closely trade and styles were linked across Asia during this period.

Celadon Production at Twante, Myanmar

In 1999, archaeologists uncovered a kiln complex in Twante, near Yangon, Myanmar. The site had once produced celadon for export. Pieces from this group have turned up at the Tak Om Koi burial site and on the Pandanan shipwreck. These finds suggest that Myanmar had been involved in ceramic trade networks, even if not much is known about the origins of these specific wares.

The pieces are mostly basic bowls, plates, and bottles. Many jars had two thick vertical handles, shaped from squared lumps of clay that were pierced with small round holes. There wasn’t much decoration. When present, it was limited to simple carved rings around plate rims or jar mouths. These features resemble details on pieces from Phan and Wang Nua in Thailand, though the rest of the construction is different. It shows that while there were shared design ideas, the Twante pottery had its own identity.

Lead-Glazed Plates from Lagunbyee, Myanmar

Also in 1999, excavations at Lagunbyee revealed over one hundred kiln sites in an area between Yangon and Bago. This region was once part of a large settlement, with visible remains of earthen walls and moats. The site dates back to before the 15th century and had long been a center of rice farming and ceramic production.

The pottery found there included both white-glazed lead wares and paddle-marked earthenware. The lead-glazed pieces were usually high-fired, with a pale, off-white surface. A common form was the wide plate, decorated only with faint incised circles at the center. The style is distinctively Burmese in both form and glaze. These plain but sturdy wares were likely made for everyday use, and their simple design helped make them practical and durable.

Collapse of Thai Kilns and the End of Export Ceramics

By 1550, the Kalong kilns in northern Thailand shut down. Their decline likely ties to a major Burmese invasion in the late 1550s. During this period, skilled Thai potters were captured and taken back to Burma, where their techniques may have influenced Burmese ceramic production.

A few years later, in 1558, the Sawankhalok kilns in north-central Thailand also ceased operations. The Burmese attacks spread deeper into Thailand, eventually hitting Ayutthaya, then the capital. As conflict intensified, Thai celadon and underglaze production began to disappear. This drop shows clearly in the archaeological record. Thai export ceramics start to fade out across Southeast Asia in the late 1500s and are nearly gone by the early 1600s.

Dating these changes precisely is hard. The old kiln sites at Sawankhalok and Sukhothai have been badly damaged. Looting and erosion over the years have destroyed much of the evidence. Still, what remains points to a clear end of large-scale Thai ceramic production in the mid-16th century, driven by war and political upheaval.

 

The Special Asian Blog Collection:

1. Ceramic Production in Southeast Asia: Historical Periods, Styles, and Techniques

2. History of Ceramics in the Malay Region: Ancient Pottery, Cultural Heritage, and Trade in Southeast Asia

3. Vietnamese Ceramics History: Ancient Pottery, Trade, and Craftsmanship

4. Traditional Philippine Pottery: Tapayan Jars, Earthenware, and Indigenous Ceramic Heritage

5. History of Thai Ceramics and Traditional Pottery Art

6. Southeast Asian Ceramics: Khmer, Lao, and Burmese Pottery Traditions

7. Historic Southeast Asian Shipwrecks with Ancient Ceramics: Maritime Trade and Sunken Treasures

8. Top Museums in Asia for Southeast Asian Ceramics: Where to See Ancient Pottery and Porcelain