Antique Ivory: Laws and Rules for Selling Ivory Collectibles

Selling Antique Ivory: Understanding the Laws and History

Ivory has drawn human interest since prehistoric times. People valued its soft shine, smooth surface, and fine grain, making it a prized material for intricate art. Small-scale ivory carving began in East Asia, but the extremely tiny, microscopic pieces were first produced in Europe. European workshops sourced ivory from eastern Mediterranean trade routes, often brought from India, Sri Lanka, and Africa.

The most renowned ivory carving centers were in southern Germany, Switzerland, and France. Their creations reflected the rococo taste for rare and unusual objects, especially delicate miniatures. Only a few artists mastered microcarving, a craft so specialized that it was nearly impossible to copy. These pieces were highly sought after by art dealers and royal treasuries. Collectors included Maria Theresa, Catherine the Great, and King George III.

Microcarving as an art form lasted from around 1770 until the end of the eighteenth century. The French Revolution marked its decline. The few masters of the technique aged and retired, and the next generation of sculptors never learned the skill. Today, fewer than a hundred known examples survive, kept in museums and private collections.

These microsculptures are carved ivory reliefs with details so small they measure less than one hundredth of a millimeter. The work required specialized miniature tools based on those used for hardwood carving, such as saws, files, and burins, but made on a much smaller scale. In precision and difficulty, ivory microcarving is closer to the cutting of precious stones than to ordinary woodwork.

Craft Techniques, Artistic Influences, and Common Motifs

Carving ivory on such a microscopic scale required extraordinary precision. The hard nature of ivory meant it could not be sliced cleanly in a single stroke. Instead, the artist would deliver countless light taps to the same point until the shape emerged. This was a slow process, and the margin for error was almost nonexistent. Even a slip of one hundredth of a millimeter could ruin a branch or fine detail. Because of this, the work could not be done entirely freehand. Metal guides were likely used to steady the blade and keep it from drifting while forming delicate shapes like tree branches or architectural lines.

The backgrounds of these carvings often featured vivid color to set off the reliefs. Artisans used enamel mixed with blue pigment from finely ground cobalt crystal, applied carefully with a small brush. Other options included the deep hue of dark Bristol blue glass or the reflective shimmer of colored aluminum foil. Once the carving was complete, it was fixed to a permanent mount and sealed under a transparent cover made of clear glass or rock crystal. This protection was essential. Without it, even the gentlest handling could damage the work.

Collectors often transformed these mounted microcarvings into wearable or functional objects. They were set into rings, brooches, pendants, earrings, watch keys, and other personal accessories. This not only displayed the art but also gave it a layer of prestige as a conversation piece.

The subjects of these miniature reliefs drew from both painting and sculpture traditions. In the late eighteenth century, the decorative arts were heavily influenced by archaeological discoveries at Herculaneum and Pompeii. These finds inspired ivory carvers to incorporate Italian classical themes into their work. Some pieces depicted Hadrianic reliefs with columned buildings, as seen in a work by Haager in a noted collection. Others borrowed directly from paintings unearthed in Herculaneum, popularized through the Antichità di Ercolano publications, which circulated engravings of round temples and ruins.

Architectural scenes were common. One example features a medieval round tower with two smaller Doric-style temples in the background. Beyond classical ruins, many carvers embraced pastoral and romantic themes, especially during the late Baroque and Rococo periods. The “maiden at the well” motif was a favorite, often given as an engagement or wedding gift. It reflected a biblical story in which a young woman meets her future husband while drawing water, symbolizing love and destiny.

Other recurring subjects included allegories, floral arrangements, seascapes, and harbor scenes. These maritime works often showed towers, lighthouses, and sailing vessels close to shore, evoking distant journeys and imagined worlds. The scale may have been tiny, but the narratives they suggested were vast, blending history, mythology, and romance into a single fragment of ivory.

Identifying Ivory, Bone, Horn, and Antler

Many museum collections include artifacts made from ivory, bone, horn, or antler. Knowing exactly which material an object is made from is crucial. It affects how the item should be stored, handled, and preserved over time. Each of these materials has its own structure, density, and response to environmental changes. Proper identification helps prevent damage and ensures the right conservation techniques are used.

Ivory and bone share a similar chemical composition, made mostly of inorganic minerals for hardness and strength, along with organic proteins that allow growth and repair in living animals. But their internal structures are distinct. Ivory, which is essentially dentine from teeth or tusks, has no marrow or network of blood vessels. It is typically whiter, smoother, denser, and heavier than bone. Bone, by contrast, contains a central spongy section filled with marrow, from which fine blood vessels extend into the surrounding solid tissue. These vessels often appear as tiny dark dots, small pits, or faint lines on the surface. In sea mammals, which coastal communities have used for centuries, bone tends to have more of this spongy material than the bone of land mammals.

Of the many animals whose tusks or large teeth have been carved, walrus and elephant ivory are the most common in collections. Walrus ivory, when cut across, shows a marbled central core surrounded by a smooth, creamy-white outer layer of dentine. This material has been the primary medium for Inuit carvers for generations. Elephant ivory has a different internal pattern. When viewed in cross section, it reveals a network of intersecting lines known as Schreger lines, which are whiter and more opaque than the surrounding material. These lines are especially visible on the underside of carved elephant ivory pieces where the tusk has been cross-cut.

Antler is a specialized form of bone that grows from the skulls of animals such as deer, elk, and moose. It has a dense outer shell of compact bone, an interior of spongy bone, and irregularly arranged internal blood vessels, which are fewer in number than those found in regular bone. Antler is heavier and denser than typical bone, with an outer surface that often appears rough and darker in color.

Horn is different from both bone and ivory. It is made of keratin, the same material found in hair, hooves, and fingernails. When examined closely, horn shows a compact mass of tightly bound, hair-like fibers. It grows around a spongy core, which can be removed to produce hollow objects like powder horns. Horn is highly workable; it can be softened by boiling, then cut, pressed, and shaped into different forms, or even flattened into sheets for decorative or functional uses.

Legal Issues

Ivory is now heavily restricted under government laws. In many cases, it has no legal market at all, which makes finding a fair market value difficult. Still, there are certain situations where it can be sold. People have been carving and using ivory for thousands of years, so there are many antique and decorative pieces in private collections today.

If you work as an appraiser, you need to guide clients on both the value of their ivory pieces and whether selling them is possible. The first step is confirming what the material actually is. Ivory and bone can look similar, but ivory comes from teeth, not bone. It has no marrow channels. Bone, on the other hand, has small holes that once carried blood vessels and nerves.

Elephant ivory has a distinct pattern called Schreger lines. These intersecting lines form as the tusk grows and make it easy to identify. Elephant ivory is different from other types, like marine ivory, but it is the one most targeted by laws, so it is the main focus here. If you cannot be sure what a piece is made of, have an expert look at it. Many appraisers, especially in fields like Asian art, can identify ivory quickly.

Bone is not regulated nearly as strictly. Worked or carved bone rarely comes from endangered species, so DNA testing is seldom needed. Because of this, most bone objects with artistic or historical value can be sold legally in most states. The rules change when the bone or other material comes from a protected species such as elephant, rhinoceros, or tiger. In those cases, there is little to no legal market outside of underground sales.

Once you confirm that the material is ivory, the next step is figuring out whether it is worked or unworked. These are the terms used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service when determining how a piece is classified under federal law. Worked ivory means it has been shaped, carved, etched, or otherwise turned into an object of art or function. Unworked ivory refers to a tusk or part of a tusk that has not been significantly altered from its natural form.

Unworked elephant tusks have one of the most restricted markets in the United States. They cannot be exported for commercial purposes under current federal regulations, and domestic sales are allowed only under very narrow circumstances. Even when legal, the buyer pool is extremely limited, and these items often carry a heavy social stigma due to public opposition toward ivory trade.

There are exceptions, but they are rare and depend on the type of ivory and its origin. One example is Alaskan scrimshaw, which is often carved from walrus tusks. Some scrimshaw still retains much of the tusk’s natural form, yet it qualifies as a traditional art form with its own set of rules. Authentic scrimshaw may bear an artist’s signature, and some pieces are fossilized, which can affect both their legal status and value. In any case, it is wise to have an expert review the piece, especially if it may qualify as a protected indigenous artwork.

If the ivory is worked and not scrimshaw, the legal and market possibilities open up a bit more. Worked ivory can take many forms. You might encounter Japanese netsuke, small intricately carved toggles worn with traditional garments. Chinese imperial ivory figures often depict gods, scholars, or mythical creatures, while Chinese export miniatures were crafted for Western buyers and sometimes resemble toys. European artisans painted miniature portraits on thin ivory plaques, while Persian ivory work often features fine geometric or floral designs.

From the 18th and 19th centuries, Continental and European carvers produced ornate boxes, small shelves, and inlaid furniture. Musical instruments are another category, especially bows for violins, violas, and cellos, where the part known as the frog was often made from ivory. Each type has its own collecting audience, price range, and historical importance. Once you know exactly what the object is, you can make an informed judgment on its market value.

When looking at a piece that contains ivory, the first questions to answer are how much ivory it has, whether the entire object is made from ivory, and where its value actually comes from. Sometimes the worth lies in the craftsmanship, the maker, the age, or other materials, not just the ivory itself. In fact, the amount and role of ivory in the design can make a big difference in whether a sale is legal.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has certain exceptions to the ivory trade ban, one of the most important being the de minimis exemption. This rule applies only to African elephant ivory. It is part of the African elephant 4(d) rule and allows specific manufactured or handcrafted items with a small amount of ivory to be sold across state lines or even internationally. When an item qualifies for this exemption, the seller can reach a much wider market. That not only makes a sale more possible but also gives appraisers more comparable sales to work with when writing reports.

To fall under the de minimis exemption, an item must meet strict conditions. If it is inside the United States, the ivory must have been imported before January 18, 1990, or brought in later under a CITES pre-Convention certificate with no commercial restrictions. If the item is outside the U.S., the ivory must have been taken from the wild before February 26, 1976. The ivory has to be a fixed part of a larger object, not loose, and it cannot be the main source of the item’s value. This means ivory should make up less than half of the item’s value and must also account for less than half its volume.

Raw ivory is not allowed under this exemption. The total weight of all ivory parts combined must be under 200 grams. Finally, the object must have been made before July 6, 2016. If all of these requirements are met, the piece can qualify for legal sale under the de minimis rule, giving both the owner and the appraiser a clearer path forward.

In the U.S.

If an ivory item is in the United States, the first thing to confirm is when and how it entered the country. You need paperwork proving it was already here before 1990. This proof can take different forms: an old purchase receipt, an earlier appraisal, a certificate from a past sale, or any other official record. If the owner has an import permit, it does not have to be from before 1990, but it must clearly show that the ivory was legally and successfully imported.

If the item is outside the U.S., the documentation changes. You need evidence showing the object was made before 1976. That date matters because it indicates the ivory was taken from the wild before stricter laws went into effect.

On top of that, there are other limits to meet. The object must have been made before 2016. The ivory must be less than half the total weight or value of the piece. The ivory content cannot exceed 200 grams in total. And it should be permanently built into the object, not something that can be easily removed.

These conditions are part of what’s called the de minimis rule. It applies to objects where ivory makes up only a small part of the whole. A classic example is a violin bow by Étienne Pajeot, which has a small ivory inlay on the frog, the part where the hand rests. The bow’s worth would be tied to its maker, craftsmanship, and condition, not the ivory. Another example is a large Philadelphia-made chest from around 1880 with ivory inlay. The appeal and value would come from its history, design, and origin, not the inlay material.

If an object meets the de minimis rule, you can include it in an appraisal or guide the client on selling it. Sometimes, you will see sales where the seller removed the ivory out of fear of breaking the law. In many cases, that removal does not change the item’s value or market interest, especially if the ivory was minimal. When you compare sales, you can factor this in to find fair market value.

Things change when a piece is made mostly or entirely of worked ivory. Here, the focus is on whether it could be legally exported for sale in another country. The most active market for ivory art and antiques is often international, including major auction houses and dealers. When finding comparables, these sellers are usually the right place to look.

The laws controlling international ivory trade fall under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, or CITES. This agreement sets the rules for exporting and importing ivory and other materials from protected species. Any client hoping to sell an ivory piece across borders will need to meet CITES requirements before it can move legally from one country to another.

If an ivory piece is sold to a buyer in another country, the seller cannot just pack it and ship it. They must apply for an export permit under CITES, the international agreement that controls trade in endangered species. This rule applies whether the sale happens at an auction, through a private dealer, or any other channel. Without this permit, the shipment can be seized, and the seller can face penalties.

Before the sale even takes place, the seller has to collect every bit of paperwork they have on the item. That includes receipts, past appraisals, letters of provenance, import records, or anything else that proves its history. These records will determine if the piece can qualify for one of the legal exemptions that allow export. The main categories are called the de minimis exemption, the pre-convention exemption, the pre-act exemption, and the Endangered Species Act or antique exemption.

The de minimis exemption applies to items that contain a very small amount of ivory, usually less than a set percentage of the total weight, and where the ivory is not the main value of the piece. The pre-convention exemption covers ivory obtained before the species was first listed under CITES protections. The pre-act exemption applies to ivory acquired before the U.S. passed certain wildlife protection laws.

The ESA or antique exemption is the one you will most often see as an appraiser. For a piece to qualify, it must be more than a century old. It cannot have been repaired or altered with any new animal or plant material after 1973. It must also have entered the United States before 1982 or have come in through a legal port of entry with the correct paperwork. These requirements are strict, and one missing detail can disqualify the item from legal export. That is why careful documentation and verification are critical before any sale involving ivory.

How to Protect and Preserve Ivory, Bone, Horn, and Antler

Ivory, bone, horn, and antlers need careful handling to keep them stable and undamaged. These organic materials react to changes in temperature and moisture in the air. Sudden changes can cause cracking, warping, or separation of surface layers. If an object has to be moved from a stable environment, it should be wrapped in unbuffered, acid-free tissue paper with a neutral pH. Once wrapped, seal it inside a polyethylene bag to create a buffer against environmental fluctuations during transport.

Handle these materials with care, especially bone. Bone is naturally porous, which makes it more fragile than dense ivory. Some items, like Inuit whalebone carvings, can break apart under light pressure. Horn and antler can also be sensitive to rough handling or cleaning, but bone tends to be the most brittle.

For long-term preservation, store these objects in closed display cases or drawers. This creates a microenvironment that helps shield them from sudden changes in temperature or humidity while also blocking dust and airborne debris. If the surface has dyes, paint, or other light-sensitive finishes, keeping the object in the dark will slow fading and discoloration.

While ivory, bone, and antler are not common targets for insect damage, horn is at high risk. Larvae from carpet beetles and clothes moths can tunnel through horn, causing serious loss of material. Because of this, inspect all stored objects twice a year for signs of pests or mold growth. If any infestation is found, immediate action is needed. Contact a conservation professional, such as the Canadian Conservation Institute, for guidance on safe treatment.

To protect against chips and scratches in storage, line shelves and drawers with a stable cushioning layer. Polyethylene and polypropylene foams, such as Ethafoam or Microfoam, work well because they do not release chemicals that can damage the surface over time. Avoid rubber-based materials, as they can cause ivory to develop a yellowed surface that is difficult to reverse.

All four materials, ivory, bone, horn, and antler, are porous and can absorb stains from direct contact with corroded metals like iron or copper, or from strongly colored fabrics and papers. If staining occurs, do not attempt to remove it without expert help. A conservator has the tools and knowledge to treat stains without worsening the damage. For regular maintenance, a gentle cleaning is usually enough. Use a soft, dry brush to loosen dust and dirt, brushing toward a vacuum nozzle covered with fine gauze so no fragments are lost. This light cleaning can keep surfaces free of buildup without risking harm to the material.

If gentle dusting is not enough to clean ivory or smooth, non-porous bone, you can use water with a mild soap like Ivory Snow or WA Paste. Mix a small amount of the soap in water to create a light solution. Use a cotton swab to apply it sparingly to the surface, working on only a few square centimeters at a time. Keep the area damp for just a few seconds, then dry it right away with another clean swab or a soft tissue. Follow up by cleaning the same spot again with plain water to remove any leftover soap. Avoid water on surfaces that are cracked or porous, and never submerge ivory or bone in liquid under any circumstances.

Over time, ivory and bone naturally develop a warm brown or yellow patina. This is part of the normal aging process and often adds to the object’s visual appeal. Trying to bleach or whiten it usually harms the piece and erases valuable character. Some Oriental ivory pieces were intentionally given a patina through staining techniques. These finishes are delicate and can be ruined by over-cleaning, sanding, or chemical treatments.

Horn is generally tougher than ivory or bone and can be cleaned with the same method, as long as its surface is intact and not flaking apart. However, when horn is used in thin sheets, like those found in old lanterns, it absorbs water quickly and can soften or warp. Water should not be used on such fragile forms.

Light exposure is another major risk. Ivory, bone, horn, and antler should be kept out of direct sunlight and away from intense artificial lighting. Bright conditions speed up fading and physical deterioration. Ideally, display lighting should stay under 150 lux, and ultraviolet exposure should be limited to 75 microwatts per lumen. Dyed pieces are even more sensitive and should not be exposed to more than 50 lux. Light damage builds up over time and cannot be reversed, so reducing both brightness and the length of display time is key.

Sealed display cases can also create problems. Heat from light sources can raise the temperature inside and cause quick, uneven changes in relative humidity. Both heat and fluctuating humidity can damage organic materials. Direct light beams can also warm an object’s surface to harmful levels. Using cooler, low-intensity lighting reduces this risk.

Among ivory, bone, horn, and antler, ivory is the most vulnerable to humidity changes, while horn is the least. Ivory behaves much like wood in that it is hygroscopic, meaning it absorbs and releases moisture depending on the environment. When humidity changes repeatedly, ivory expands and contracts, which can lead to severe cracking or warping. Thin ivory pieces, such as portrait miniatures, are especially at risk. Keeping humidity levels stable is essential for preserving them.

Ivory, bone, horn, and antler last longer when stored in stable, controlled conditions. The ideal environment is no warmer than 25°C with relative humidity between 45 and 55 percent. That balance helps prevent cracking, warping, or other forms of deterioration. In reality, keeping those exact conditions is not always possible, especially in Canadian winters when heating systems dry the air. Even so, the priority is to avoid sudden or extreme changes in temperature or humidity. Changes that happen too fast can cause more damage than a slightly imperfect setting.

Placement matters just as much as climate control. These materials should never sit in direct sunlight, under hot display lights, near heating vents, air conditioners, fireplaces, or on top of electronics like televisions or radios. Heat from these sources can dry them out and make them brittle. Exterior walls and cold windows are also risky because temperature differences can cause stress in the material. A consistent, moderate environment with indirect light will help preserve their condition for decades.

French ivory requires extra caution. This material is not true ivory but an imitation often made from cellulose nitrate. It looks similar but has a serious drawback: it is flammable. Keep it far from any heat source, sparks, or open flames to avoid the risk of fire.

If a piece is cracked, fragile, or heavily soiled, do not attempt repairs or deep cleaning yourself. Amateur handling can cause permanent damage. Instead, contact a trained conservator who has experience working with organic materials.

Selling Antique Ivory Online: Laws, Rules, and Proof You Need

Selling ivory online follows the same legal restrictions as selling it in person. Federal and state laws apply no matter where the sale takes place. On top of that, every online marketplace has its own rules, and many of them are stricter than the law. For example, eBay has a complete ban on ivory, no matter the age or origin of the piece. Other platforms may allow it, but only with strict proof that the item qualifies for an exemption. That usually means you will need official records showing when and how it was obtained.

If you have antique ivory and want to sell it, study the regulations first. Laws differ by state, and some states have a total ban regardless of age. If you think your piece might qualify for an exception, gather every document you can find. That could be the original purchase receipt, a written record showing it was inherited, or a will that lists the item. Photos with clear dates can also help prove ownership and age. For items claimed to be over a century old, written proof of its history is important. Without it, your chances of legally selling are very slim.

If you cannot confirm the age yourself, hire an experienced appraiser. Make sure they are recognized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, since that agency enforces federal ivory laws. A professional report from an approved appraiser carries more weight than an unverified claim.

Even if you can legally own an antique ivory piece, you might not be allowed to sell it at all. In many cases, the law will require you to keep it or pass it down within your family. If you are able to sell, you must be completely honest in your listing. Never disguise ivory as “bone” or use vague descriptions to avoid filters. Mislabeling is illegal and can also get you banned from most platforms, including eBay. A single misleading word can result in your item being removed and your account suspended.