1. What Is Black-Burnished Ware?
Black-burnished ware refers to a type of pottery from Roman Britain. These ceramics are known for their polished, black or grey surfaces created through a process called burnishing, where the surface is smoothed using a hard tool like a pebble.
There are two main types of black-burnished ware:
Black-Burnished Ware 1 (BB1) and Black-Burnished Ware 2 (BB2)
While both types look similar and share surface decoration styles, they differ in how they’re made, the clay used, and where they were produced.
BB1: Hand-Formed, Coarse Black Ceramics from Dorset
Black-Burnished Ware Category 1 (BB1) is a handmade, coarse-textured ceramic. It's often black or dark grey and feels gritty due to the minerals in the clay. This clay body can contain:
- Black and red iron ores
- Flint
- Quartz
- Shale fragments
- White mica
BB1 vessels were shaped by hand, not on a potter’s wheel. Common forms include jars with everted rims, flat-rimmed bowls, and dishes. Surface decoration often includes burnished lattice patterns or sine-wave lines, especially on bowls.
BB1 pottery was made in the Dorset region and widely distributed across Britain. Its main period of use ranges from the mid-2nd to the 4th centuries CE.
BB1 also influenced other ceramic types, including Vectis ware, found on the Isle of Wight.
BB2: Wheel-Thrown, Fine-Textured Ceramics from the Thames Estuary
Black-Burnished Ware Category 2 (BB2) has a much finer texture compared to BB1. It was made using a fast potter’s wheel, not by hand. The fabric is described as hard and sandy, with color variations that include:
- Dark grey or black surfaces
- Brown or reddish-brown cores
- Pearly grey, blue-grey, or reddish finishes
The clay used for BB2 also includes black iron ore, mica, and quartz, all held together in a compact sediment matrix. These vessels were more refined in appearance and finish.
BB2 pottery was produced on both the Essex and Kent sides of the Thames Estuary. Distribution occurred mainly between CE 140 and the mid-3rd century, with finds concentrated in southeast England and parts of northern Britain.
Shared Features of BB1 and BB2
Despite their differences in production and texture, BB1 and BB2 share common stylistic traits:
- Burnished surface designs, including latticework and wavy (sine wave) lines
- Common shapes like jars, dishes, and bowls
- Consistent use of black or dark finishes
These features make black-burnished ware easy to identify in Roman archaeological sites across Britain.
2. What Is Black-on-Black Pottery?
Black-on-black ware is a type of Pueblo pottery developed in the 20th and 21st centuries by Native American ceramic artists in Northern New Mexico. The technique was built on much older traditions of reduction-fired blackware, a method where clay is fired in a low-oxygen setting to create a rich black finish.
Origins and Cultural Roots
This pottery style was developed and preserved by artists from pueblos, including:
- Kha'po Owingeh (Santa Clara Pueblo)
- P'ohwhóge Owingeh (San Ildefonso Pueblo)
Families in these communities have passed down pottery-making techniques for generations. Other Pueblo communities have also created black-on-black ceramics, often honoring ancestral styles through contemporary designs.
How Black-on-Black Pottery Is Made
Pottery is made by hand-coiling local clay - no wheel is used. The surface is smoothed and polished, and designs are added using one of two methods:
1) Selective burnishing to create a matte vs. glossy contrast
2) Application of refractory slip, a clay wash that resists polishing
In some styles, artists carve or incise patterns, then polish only the raised areas to create a visual contrast.
The clay body used for this ware is fine-grained and strong. After forming, the pot is left to dry, then fired in an outdoor pit using traditional techniques.
The Firing Process: How the Pot Turns Black
Two methods are used to achieve the black color:
- Reduction firing: The fire is smothered with powdered dung, cutting off oxygen but keeping the heat. This turns the entire pot black.
- Smudging: Metal sheets limit airflow, and the fire is smothered with damp manure. The smoke infuses the pot with carbon, blackening the surface.
These techniques are both rooted in traditional Pueblo firing methods.
The Role of María Martinez
The modern version of black-on-black ware rose to prominence in the early 1900s thanks to the innovations of María Martinez, a renowned potter from San Ildefonso Pueblo. She helped shift Pueblo pottery from functional blackware to a distinctive artistic form known for its matte-on-shiny black design.
Today, black-on-black ware is found in major museums and private collections around the world.
3. Handmade Burnished Ware: Bronze Age Pottery Across the Eastern Mediterranean
Handmade Burnished Ware, sometimes called Barbarian Ware, is a type of Bronze Age pottery. It appears in archaeological layers from the Late Helladic IIIB and IIIC periods, starting around the mid-13th century BCE, just before the collapse of the Mycenaean world.
It stands out from other pottery of the time because of:
- Coarse construction
- Lack of wheel use (made entirely by hand)
- Uneven firing
- Burnished surfaces (rubbed smooth after shaping)
Where Has It Been Found?
This type of pottery has been found at many eastern Mediterranean sites, including:
- Tiryns in mainland Greece
- The Menelaion in Laconia
- Sites in Epirus, Anatolia, Cyprus, and Syria
Not a Single Style: Differences by Region
Handmade Burnished Ware isn’t uniform. It varies in shape, decoration, and function depending on the site:
- In Epirus, most vessels were made for consumption
- At Tiryns, many were used for storage, with some examples showing decorative patterns
- In other places, the vessels are plain and undecorated
Because of this variation, scholars like Eleni Vasileiou argue that it shouldn’t be treated as a single pottery type.
Competing Theories About Its Origins
Diffusionist Theories
Some researchers believe this pottery came with migrating groups during the late 13th and 12th centuries BCE. Early ideas linked it to Dorian invaders, but that theory has been dropped since the ware predates the main destruction layers of the Bronze Age collapse.
Later versions of this theory still suggest movement of small groups into Mycenaean territory.
Local Development Theories
Other researchers argue that Handmade Burnished Ware was made by local communities. As high-quality Mycenaean pottery became harder to get, people may have turned to rougher, simpler ceramics as substitutes.
Why It Matters
Handmade Burnished Ware gives insight into life during the Bronze Age collapse. Whether made by outsiders or locals, it shows how pottery traditions changed during a time of social stress and economic disruption.
4. What Is Northern Black Polished Ware?
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) is a type of burnished ceramic linked to urban culture in Iron Age India, used from around 700 BCE to 200 BCE. A transitional phase, known as proto-NBPW, began even earlier, between 1200 and 700 BCE.
NBPW succeeded earlier pottery types like the Painted Grey Ware and Black and Red Ware. It first appeared during the late Vedic period and reached its peak from 500 to 300 BCE, aligning with the rise of the Mahajanapadas (16 powerful kingdoms) and the Mauryan Empire.
Early Dates and Key Archaeological Sites
Recent archaeological finds have pushed the date of NBPW further back:
- Juafardih (Nalanda District, Bihar): Earliest carbon-dated NBPW, around 1200 BCE
- Akra and Ter Kala Dheri (Bannu region): Carbon dates range from 900 to 790 BCE and 1000 to 400 BCE
- Ayodhya: Dated to around the 13th century BCE (1000 BCE)
These discoveries suggest that NBPW pottery may have started centuries earlier than previously thought.
Main Features of NBPW Ceramics
The defining artifact of this culture is the highly polished black or dark grey pottery, often found in elite or ceremonial settings. Key traits include:
- Fine burnished surfaces
- High-quality clay, often dark in color
- Luxury tableware used by the upper class
This pottery is often found alongside signs of advanced settlement, including:
- Fortified cities
- Large-scale population centers
- Extensive trade networks
- Specialized industries (e.g., ivory carving, semi-precious stone work, conch shell items)
- Use of weights, punch-marked coins, and writing systems like Brahmi and Kharosthi
Links to Earlier Harappan Traditions
Scholars have noted similarities between NBPW sites and Indus Valley Civilization practices. Examples include:
- Use of mud, baked bricks, and stone in building
- Large public structures
- Hydraulic systems for water management
- Craft objects like ivory dice and combs
- A system of weights
Still, there are differences. In the NBPW period, grains like rice, millet, and sorghum became more important, reflecting a shift in diet and agriculture.
Some researchers see the NBPW period as the first true state-level society in the Indian subcontinent.
Cultural Distinctions and Regional Development
Historian Geoffrey Samuel, citing Tim Hopkins, notes that the Central Gangetic Plain - the heart of the NBPW zone - developed separately from the Vedic Aryan culture to its west. While the Aryans lived in the Kuru-Panchala region and used Painted Grey Ware, the Gangetic plain moved toward urbanism and iron use on its own.
The End of the NBPW Period
Around 200 BCE, Northern Black Polished Ware was replaced by new ceramic styles, such as red ware with stamped and incised designs. However, the same cities continued to thrive.
The post-NBPW period (c. 200 BCE - c. 300 CE) still saw strong urban growth, now under the Shunga, Satavahana, and Kushan empires.
NBPW and Maritime Trade
Fragments of NBPW have been found outside India, showing trade links:
- Sri Lanka (Anuradhapura): Finds dated to 500 - 250 BCE, showing contact with the Gangetic valley
- Southern Thailand: Sites like Tam Sǔa, Kapoe, and Khao Sam Kaeo have similar ceramics. However, archaeologist Phaedra Bouvet identifies these as KSK-Black Polished Wares, not true NBPW. These were made locally but influenced by Indian styles, between 4th and 2nd centuries BCE
Proto-NBPW: The Transition Phase
Proto-Northern Black Polished Ware is the earlier form of NBPW. It was first identified by Giovanni Verardi at Gotihawa in the Terai region of Nepal. Characteristics include:
- Lustrous black surfaces with red spots (from firing issues)
- Thick vessel walls
- Thin slip layer
- A standard thali shape
- Red and black sections in the cross-section
Rakesh Tewari dated these to 900-800 BCE, possibly even two centuries earlier than 800 BCE. He suggested that proto-NBPW may have been present at all major NBPW sites.
Literary References and NBPW Sites
Some ancient cities where NBPW pottery has been found are mentioned in Indian texts like the Ramayana. These include:
- Ayodhya
- Sringaverapura
This link between literature and archaeology gives insight into the cultural and political setting of the time.
