The Rise of Mongol Era Pottery and Ceramics
The Mongol armies under Genghis Khan swept into China in the 1220s. They pushed through Central Asia and into the Islamic world. By mid-century they held lands from the Caucasus to Central Asia. In the second half of that century, political stability returned. This opened up trade routes across Asia.
Islamic pottery from the Mongol era stands out. It features bold shapes and deeper, muted colors. Artists introduced Chinese motifs like lotuses, phoenixes, and dragons. These elements came from Chinese textiles and crafts. They blended seamlessly into Islamic Middle Eastern art.
How Mongols Boosted Decorative Arts
The Chinese respected fine crafts like jade, bronze, ceramics, porcelain, but artisans were not highly regarded. The Mongols saw things differently. They honored craftsmanship and created policies to benefit artisans.
The nomadic Mongols didn’t bring artisans with them. They relied on the skills of settled craftsmen. This reliance meant that artisans gained special treatment. During Genghis Khan’s capture of Samarkand, he ordered his men to spare artisans. Across the Mongol empire, craftsmen enjoyed tax relief and were exempt from forced labor. The Mongol elite valued their creations.
Building capital cities needed skilled hands. When Ögedei Khan built Karakorum, or when Kublai Khan developed Shangdu (Xanadu) and the city now known as Beijing, they imported artisans and architects from afar. This migration of talent fueled new styles and techniques.
Artisans Gained Prestige and Perks
Under Mongol rule, artisans rose in status. They no longer faced forced labor or heavy taxes. Their craftsmanship reached new levels. Highly prized textiles and ceramics emerged. In fact, blue-and-white porcelain, a hallmark of the later Ming dynasty, first surfaced under the Mongols.
The Yuan dynasty, set up by the Mongols, kept ceramic production flourishing. Major kiln centers were at Longquan in Zhejiang and Jingdezhen in Jiangxi. Craftsmen experimented with underglaze painting. They used copper red from copper oxide and cobalt blue sourced from what is now Iran.
The Global Reach of Underglaze Porcelain
Underglaze blue-and-white porcelain found eager buyers abroad. These ceramics were strong and practical. The decoration could be tailored to different tastes. Some pieces served Daoist temples in China. Others were made for Zen Buddhist monks in Japan. Muslim buyers in West Asia also snapped them up. The Mongol empire’s far-reaching trade routes made it possible. That global network fueled demand and shaped this pottery style.
Global Exchange and Visiting Travelers during the Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan dynasty saw travelers crossing the vast Eurasian trade routes. One of the most famous was Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant who arrived at the Mongol court around 1275. He stayed for 16 or 17 years. But he was not unique. Many Europeans lived in China during the Yuan era. They left behind tombstones that reveal religious diversity and tolerance. One tombstone belongs to Caterina Vilioni, an Italian Christian immigrant who settled permanently in 13th century China. Her resting place offers a glimpse of the multi-faith environment in Yuan dynasty China.
The Rise of Ceramic Studies in Mongolia
In Mongolia, focused study on early ceramics only began in the 1970s. That's when archaeologists started identifying styles and cataloging pottery by function. They also began to investigate how ceramics fit into society and the economy. G. Menes studied pottery of the Chandmani culture. Yu. S. Khudyakov, D. Tseveendorj, and D. Bayar researched Uyghur ceramics. Ts. Turbat and T. Baybayar explored Xiongnu culture at Burkhan Tolgoi and Boroo Settlement. Ch. Amartuvshin, G. Galdan, and others worked on Xiongnu ceramics at Baga Gazryn Chuluu. D. Navaan published color sketches of Mongolian archaeological pottery. Meanwhile, M. Hall, J. Wright, M. Saran, and Ts. Turbat showed how ceramics could help with dating archaeological sites. Their studies expanded our understanding of Mongolia’s ancient pottery through systematic research.
Deer Stones and Stone Men Monuments of Ancient Mongolia
Before the balbal, or stone men, Mongolia had the bagan chuluu (deer stones) from the Iron and Bronze Ages. These large stone pillars face east. They feature deer carvings with huge antlers rolling down their backs and long snouts. A few even show human faces, making them among Central Asia’s earliest human depictions. By the 8th century, deer stones were widespread, reflecting the diversity of Turkic cultures. Once objects of ritual and reverence, they are now under protection in their original locations. In the Gobi region near Oyu Tolgoi, some remain next to in‑situ copper‑gold deposits.
Zanabazar’s Contribution to Mongolian Sculpture
Fast forward to the 17th century. Undur Gegeen Zanabazar emerged as a key religious leader and sculptor. He created 21 tare figures (female consorts of Buddha) celebrating the beauty of Mongolian women. His work established a tradition of human form in Mongolian sculpture. He and others used metals like brass and copper extensively in Buddhist art. Bronze and copper casting became central to creating ritual images for temples and home shrines.
Unknown Kilns Near Karakorum
Archaeologists still do not know the location of kilns around Karakorum. But the pottery unearthed in the Kiselov excavations shows a variety of glazed ceramic styles. These wares offer clues about trade and cultural exchange during the Mongol era.
Jun Ceramics
One of the most common finds is Jun ware. This pottery has a thick, blue glaze. It’s named after the Jun kilns in today’s Henan province. The glaze ranges from sky blue to purple, with unique splashy effects. Evtiukhova noted this was the most frequent type found near Karakorum.
Cizhou Ceramics
The second most common type is Cizhou ware. It comes from kilns in modern Hebei. These ceramics feature a wide palette: milky whites, creamy tones, grays, light greens, browns, blacks, even turquoise. Decoration varies too: black or brown underglaze paintings, incised slip designs, sometimes red or green paints. The clay bodies range from buff to gray. Some scholars suggest production may have occurred close to Karakorum itself. These sturdy, decorative wares were popular household items.
Liao Ceramics
Liao-dynasty ceramics are the only group named after a ruling house. The Liao ruled parts of Mongolia and northern China from 907 to 1125 CE. Their wares are notable for multicolored glazes; mostly green and yellow.
Liuli-Type Glazed Ceramics
Related to Liao wares, Liuli-type ceramics use colored glazes from the Song dynasty onward. These pieces continued the tradition of vibrant glazing and highlight evolving kiln techniques.
Celadon or Longquan Ceramics
Longquan celadon represents another major find. Named after kilns in Zhejiang, these ceramic wares mimic jade. They appear in shades of pale to deep green. This celadon glaze was prized for its smooth finish and subtle beauty.
Jingdezhen Porcelains
The excavations also revealed porcelains from Jingdezhen in Jiangxi province. These include Qingbai pieces (pale bluish-white glazed wares) and classic blue-and-white porcelain. Jingdezhen was the birthplace of this iconic underglaze blue style, which gained global fame during the Mongol Yuan era.
Henan-Type Ceramics: A Mixed Group of Glazed Wares
The group known as “Henan-type” covers a wide range of pottery styles. These pieces come in deep browns, blacks, olive greens, and other earthy shades. Some of the black-glazed fragments might have come from the Jian kilns in Fujian. Other pieces, especially those with both fine and rough textures, could have been made closer to Karakorum. This category includes various subgroups but isn’t always easy to classify. Still, the range of colors and glazes shows strong links to major Chinese ceramic traditions.
Marbled Ware: Unique for Its Patterned Body
Only a few fragments of marbled ware turned up in the excavations. These pieces stand out because of their two-toned, swirled bodies. Unlike other types that are defined by glaze or shape, this group is named for how the clay itself looks. Evtiukhova ties these ceramics to the Jun kilns in modern Henan.
Dark Green Glaze on Red Clay Body
This small group doesn’t match any known Chinese style. The pieces have a dark green glaze layered over reddish clay. They were only found in deeper layers of the excavation site, specifically layers ten and eleven. That suggests these ceramics might be older or locally made around Karakorum.
Miniature Vessels with Dark Brown Glaze
Small bowls with a dark brown glaze also turned up. Some of them have red markings. These tiny vessels were not unique to Karakorum. Similar ones have been found in other early Mongolian towns, though the exact towns weren’t named. The archaeologist Kyzlasov collected examples in the 1960s that now sit in a museum in Moscow. The records for these finds are short and don’t give much extra detail.
Large Vessels with Brown or Green Glaze
There were also large glazed containers, sometimes as wide as 80 centimeters. The rims on these vessels were left unglazed. These pieces weren’t given much attention in the original analysis, so we don’t have detailed data about them. But their size alone makes them stand out from the rest of the collection.
What the Ceramics Say About Karakorum
Evtiukhova noted that the Karakorum ceramics don’t show much evolution. Since the city existed for a short time, there wasn’t enough of a window for style or design to change much. The shapes of the vessels appear standardized. She also identified some unglazed pieces that probably date back to the Uighur period, which points to earlier settlement layers beneath Karakorum.
Inscriptions, Marks, and Mongol Script
Some ceramic pieces, especially Jun and Cizhou wares, had marks or writing on them. Most of the inscriptions were family names. Only two out of 39 were the same, so it’s clear many different people owned these vessels. Some marks named the owner. Others included symbols that looked like the old Mongol square script. A few had extra info like the date or type of vessel. One mark on a Liao-type vessel had the Chinese word for “mine.” Another read “old monk from the temple of heavens.”
Where the Artifacts Are Now
The ceramics from the Kiselov excavations are now split across several institutions. Some are in the National Museum of Mongolian History and the Mongolian Academy of Sciences in Ulaanbaatar. Others are held in Russia in the State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg and the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow. A few pieces have been republished in recent years, including a booklet by Kamei Meitoku and Aiuudain Ochir in 2007 and newer publications by Iulia Elikhina that focus on artifacts in the Hermitage collection.
Mongolia’s Oldest Pottery Discovery
A 2025 excavation in Mongolia just rewrote pottery history in Central Asia. Researchers uncovered shards dating back more than 11,000 years in the Gobi Desert. That pushes ceramic origins in the region back by nearly 2,000 years.
Researchers led by Dr. Przemysław Bobrowski made the find at Baruun Khuree, also called Lake V. It’s located about 700 kilometers south of Ulaanbaatar. Their report in Radiocarbon shows the site dates to the early Holocene, which started nearly 11,700 years ago.
Flint Valley and Ancient Human Life
The dig took place in Tsakhiurtyn Hundi, known as Flint Valley. That area lies in the Arts Bogdyn Nuruu range and is rich in flint. Flint tools are scattered all around. The region, first mapped by a Mongolian‑Russian‑American team in the 2000s, is now a key prehistoric spot. But deep digs have been rare until now.
Bobrowski’s team studied settlement patterns, environmental changes, and how early groups used local materials. Their survey of dry paleolakes south of the massif revealed Ice Age camps. Later, hunter‑gatherers returned during the warmer early Holocene.
Artifacts from Baruun Khuree
The main focus was Baruun Khuree. Excavations at three nearby spots found stone tools, pottery fragments, hearths, and decorative ostrich eggshell pieces. Some eggshells formed beads and pendants.
These eggshell ornaments likely came from Struthio anderssoni. That’s an extinct East Asian ostrich that lived in Mongolia and China during the Pleistocene and early Holocene. The decorated items give insight into prehistoric daily life and creativity.
Two Waves of Early Occupation
Radiocarbon dating revealed two periods of human activity. The oldest layer at site FV 139 dates to between 11,251 and 11,196 years ago. The younger layer from FV 133 and FV 134A dates to between 10,620 and 10,535 years ago. These layers show the region was reused over time. More importantly, they confirm pottery usage around 11,200 years ago, long before prior estimates.
Oldest Pottery in Mongolia
Before this, the earliest known Mongolian pottery was around 9,600 years old. The Baruun Khuree vessels are nearly 2,000 years older. These thin‑walled pieces, just 7 to 8 millimeters thick and gray to reddish, stand out. Their age aligns with early pottery from northern China.
Dr. Bobrowski said the discovery shows pottery tech reached the Gobi Altai region thousands of years earlier. It lines up with the earliest dates known from northern China.
A New Look at Ancient Innovation
Next steps include deeper analysis of the pottery and ostrich eggshell pieces. A separate study on these artifacts is in progress. This find not only changes Mongolia’s ceramic timeline back nearly 2,000 years. It also raises new questions about how early tech and culture spread across Central Asia.
As work continues around the ancient lakebeds and the flint tool sites of Tsakhiurtyn Hundi, more revelations about this prehistoric landscape are expected.
