The Long Story of Pottery in India

Pottery in India goes way back. It's one of the oldest handmade crafts still around today. People have been shaping clay into useful items for thousands of years. The process sounds simple: take clay, shape it, fire it with heat. But there's skill behind it. And in India, it’s not just craft. It’s culture.

Over the centuries, this art has spread across every region, shaped by local traditions and daily life. From ancient villages to modern cities, pottery in India has kept its roots while growing with time.

How Clay Became the Heart of Indian Pottery

Everything starts with clay. It's soft and moldable. It takes on any shape you give it, and once it's fired, it hardens and becomes solid. That’s the base of all pottery. But not all clay objects are the same.

Indian artisans learned early on how to mix clay with other natural materials. This helped create different types of pottery. Stoneware, porcelain, and ceramic pieces came out of these mixes. These materials are known for being tough, smooth, and waterproof.

Making pottery takes practice. You have to know how to work the clay, shape it by hand or wheel, let it dry just enough, and then fire it at the right temperature. One mistake, and the whole piece could crack or fall apart. This is why pottery was and still is a respected skill across India.

Pottery Before the Indus Valley Civilization

The art of pottery in India didn’t start with the Indus Valley. It began even earlier. Archaeologists have found pottery from the Mesolithic and Neolithic ages. That’s the Middle and New Stone Age.

One of the oldest known pottery styles in South Asia came from the Vindhya region. These were hunter-gatherers who made cord-impressed pottery. That means they pressed ropes or cords into soft clay to make patterns before firing.

Later, during the Neolithic period, more pottery styles popped up in different parts of India. Rajasthan had the Ahar-Banas culture. Haryana saw the rise of Kunal pottery. Gujarat had the Rangpur style. Balochistan had the Mehrgarh culture. Each group made pottery in its own way, often with its own look, but all shared one thing: they valued clay.

While these cultures grew separately from the Indus Valley, their pottery often showed overlapping patterns and shapes. That tells us they probably had some trade or shared ideas.

What Pottery Was Used For in Early India

Back then, pottery wasn’t for decoration. It was part of daily life. People used it to store food, water, and grain. They made bowls, jars, lamps, and sometimes beads or bangles out of clay. Glazing, which gives a glossy finish, was used during the Neolithic period but only rarely on pots. It was more common on jewelry and seals.

Traditionally, Hindu customs didn’t encourage eating from ceramic plates. Still, potters made matki jars for storing water, oil lamps for lighting homes, and simple clay cups called kulhars for drinking tea. These kulhars were cheap and disposable, and they’re still common at roadside tea stalls.

Pottery as Art and Architecture

India didn’t just use pottery for daily items. It also became a big part of art and architecture. Terracotta figurines were everywhere. Sculptors shaped gods, animals, and humans out of clay. These were baked, painted, and displayed.

In Bengal, clay went even further. There wasn’t much stone in that area, so people used terracotta and carved bricks to build temples and mosques. You can still see those detailed sculptures in old buildings today.

In South India, many temples have large, painted terracotta statues on their gopurams. These figures stand tall and colorful, showing how pottery crossed over from craft into sacred art.

Who Makes Traditional Pottery in India

Pottery in India has long been the work of the kumhar community. These are skilled potters who pass down their knowledge from one generation to the next. The word comes from the Sanskrit term kumbhakara, which means pot maker.

These communities still keep the tradition alive today. Many use old techniques, and others mix in modern tools. But their role has always been clear. Without them, Indian pottery wouldn’t exist.

Modern Pottery and India’s Growing Ceramic Industry

Pottery isn’t just an old-world craft anymore. It’s part of a booming industry. Handmade pottery is still popular, but factory-made ceramics have taken off too. Tableware, tiles, and home decor made from ceramics are in demand across the country.

By 2018, the ceramic market in India was already valued in the billions. Experts expected it to grow to over €7.5 billion by 2022. Just in that year alone, India produced around 40,000 tonnes of ceramic tableware.

Online pottery stores, weekend craft fairs, and specialty markets have made it easier for people to buy and sell clay work. And as more people look for handmade or eco-friendly items, interest in pottery keeps rising.

The Story Isn’t Over

Pottery in India has come a long way, but it hasn’t lost its roots. From ancient hand-built jars to mass-produced ceramic plates, clay is still part of daily life. What started as a survival skill became a tradition, then an art, and now, a growing business.

That mix of history, craft, and culture is what makes Indian pottery so unique. It’s not just about making something from clay. It’s about keeping the story going.

 

Early Pottery Traditions in India: From Stone Age to Copper Age

The early story of Indian pottery runs deep into the prehistoric layers of time. It begins in the Mesolithic period, continues into the Neolithic, and leads up to the Chalcolithic era. These stages weren’t just about different tools or ways of life. They also marked the birth and growth of pottery across different cultures and regions in the Indian subcontinent.

Pottery in the Mesolithic Period

The Mesolithic age, or Middle Stone Age, came between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. People still used stone tools, but they were more advanced than before. They hunted better, gathered more, and had a wider range of food. Their tools helped them adapt.

During this time, a new kind of pottery appeared. The Vindhya region saw the rise of a ceramic style known as cord-impressed pottery. These early pots were made by pressing cords or strings onto wet clay to leave patterns before firing. This technique became part of the region’s identity.

Pottery found at sites like Lahuradewa and Chopanimando has been dated as far back as 7000 to 6000 BCE. These are currently the oldest known ceramic traditions in South Asia. Even in the Proto-Neolithic period that followed, this style remained common in nearby areas.

Neolithic Advances and Permanent Settlements

The Neolithic age, or New Stone Age, brought a big change. People began to farm, raise animals, and live in permanent homes. They used polished stone tools and started new crafts like weaving and pottery.

In this period, pottery was no longer just functional. It became part of daily life, storage, and culture. People shaped, painted, and fired their pots in more refined ways. As village life spread, so did the use of pottery, and each region developed its own distinct style.

The Ahar-Banas Culture in Rajasthan

One key culture from this time was the Ahar-Banas, found along the Ahar, Banas, and Berach rivers in southeastern Rajasthan. It lasted from about 3000 to 1500 BCE. These people lived close to copper-rich areas in the Aravalli Range and made tools and objects from both copper and clay.

Their pottery was simple but unique. They also had basic seals with designs that closely resembled patterns seen at Indus Valley sites. Wheat and barley were their main crops. Their ceramic work was part of a larger system that combined farming, metalwork, and trade.

Amri-Nal Culture and the Pre-Harappan Timeline

The Amri-Nal culture existed between the 4th and 3rd millennia BCE. It gets its name from two sites: Amri in Sindh and Nal in Balochistan. These regions had early settlements that later merged with the Harappan civilization, but their earlier layers had unique pottery and craft styles of their own.

Amri had non-Harappan phases dating from 6000 to 4000 BCE. It later moved into the Harappan period, continuing until around 1300 BCE. This timeline shows how the ceramic traditions of early cultures blended and evolved.

Bhirrana and the Oldest Neolithic Pottery

The Bhirrana site in Haryana is likely the oldest Neolithic settlement in India, dating back to around 7570 to 6200 BCE. Its pottery collection is large and diverse.

The styles here include mud applique ware, light and deep incised designs, chocolate or tan slip finishes, and black-on-red painted pottery. Some pieces even feature bichrome designs, using both black and white pigments. This shows how even early pottery was artistic as well as practical.

Kunal Culture and Trade with the Harappans

The Kunal site in Haryana also stands out. It had its own local pottery and home-building style. Its earliest phase goes back to about 4000 BCE, older than the Early Harappan site at Rehman Dheri, which dates to 3300 BCE.

At Kunal, archaeologists found a pot full of gold leaf, silver jewelry, and beads made from semi-precious stones. This suggests that the people here had contact with the Harappans and possibly traded with them.

Rehman Dheri, Kot Diji, and the Pre-Harappan Network

Rehman Dheri in Pakistan was once thought to be the oldest site linked to the Harappan civilization, but later finds at Kunal proved even older. Still, Rehman Dheri remains important. It helps show the path from earlier cultures into the Harappan age.

Kot Diji and Amri are located near each other in Sindh. They developed early local cultures before coming in contact with Harappan life. Over time, their pottery and tools changed to match the Harappan style. These were cultural ancestors of Harappa itself.

Several sites across the region show similar transitions. Banawali in Haryana, Kot Diji, Amri, and Rehman Dheri all have early levels of culture that came before Harappa. These pre-Harappan stages were separate but related. Later, some sites like Kot Diji showed two more layers that continued into the Mature Harappan phase.

Fortified Towns and the Rise of Settled Pottery Culture

As time moved forward, these settlements turned into fortified towns. People built walls, lived in planned houses, and made pottery in more organized ways. The evolution from simple cord-impressed pots to complex painted ceramics tracks the change from small groups of gatherers to larger farming towns.

This rise in pottery also tracks the growth of early Indian culture itself. Each pot, jar, and seal holds clues to how people lived, traded, and created in the earliest parts of Indian history.

Early Pottery Cultures in India and Their Place in Pre-Harappan History

India's pottery tradition has roots far older than the Indus Valley Civilization. Several sites across the northwestern region show clear layers of cultural development. These early settlements used clay to create distinct styles of pottery and seals, showing both everyday use and symbolic meaning. Each location reveals how pottery evolved alongside the earliest stages of civilization in South Asia.

Kunal: The Oldest Known Site with Early Pottery Culture

Kunal, in Hisar district of Haryana, is one of the earliest known archaeological sites tied to ancient Indian pottery. The first layers here date to around 5000 BCE, with the second phase reaching 4000 BCE. This makes it older than Rehman Dheri, a well-known pre-Harappan site. Kunal is believed to be the cultural ancestor of Rehman Dheri.

Excavations in 1998 and 1999 uncovered a small button seal. On one side, it shows two deer. The other side has a geometric design. This same style shows up at Rehman Dheri, dated to about 4000 BCE, which further proves that Kunal came first. The second cultural phase of Kunal also aligns with the post-Neolithic period, often called the Early Harappan or Hakra phase, between roughly 3300 and 2800 BCE.

Kot Diji and Its Link to Early Pottery Traditions

Kot Diji, located in Sindh, Pakistan, is another major early site. Dated to around 3300 BCE, it gave its name to an entire cultural phase. The ceramics found here share traits with both earlier and later traditions, showing clear links to Sothi-Siswal styles.

Amri: A Long Timeline of Pottery Use

Amri, also in present-day Pakistan, holds layers that stretch from 6000 BCE to about 1300 BCE. This long timeline includes both non-Harappan and Harappan pottery styles. It proves that the region had complex, evolving ceramic traditions long before and after the Indus Valley civilization reached its height.

Kalibangan: Pottery on the Ghaggar River

Kalibangan sits in northwest Rajasthan on the banks of the Ghaggar River. Its settlement dates from around 3500 to 2500 BCE. It’s one of the best-known sites for Early Harappan pottery, with well-planned structures and a clear ceramic tradition tied to everyday life and rituals.

Rehman Dheri: A Clear Cultural Descendant of Kunal

Rehman Dheri, near Dera Ismail Khan in modern Pakistan, lies close to the Zhob Valley. It dates back to around 3300 BCE and shows cultural ties to Kunal. Pottery and seals found here reflect styles that clearly descended from those used earlier in Haryana.

Mehrgarh: From No Pottery to Complex Designs

Mehrgarh is one of the earliest farming sites in the region, but pottery doesn’t appear until Period II. In Period III, potters began using wheels. Designs became more detailed, and animal motifs appeared. By Period IV, the famous female figurines made from clay became common.

From Period VI onward, potters started using better firing methods. A dedicated pottery zone was found at mound MR1. In Period VIII, though, the craftsmanship dropped. Mass production had started, and more attention switched to metal items like bronze and copper vessels.

Sothi-Siswal: Two Sites That Shaped a Culture

Sothi and Siswal are two separate sites located about 70 kilometers apart. Together, they form the base of the Sothi-Siswal culture. Sothi is older, dating to around 4600 BCE, while Siswal layers begin around 3800 BCE. The ceramic traditions of these sites show both regional differences and overlap.

So far, archaeologists have identified at least 165 Sothi-Siswal sites. Some of them are over 20 hectares in size. These sites stretch across Haryana and Rajasthan, especially along the Ghaggar and Chautang rivers. In ancient texts, these rivers are linked with the Sarasvati and Drishadvati rivers.

Sothi-Siswal ceramics show a strong connection to Kot Diji styles. That’s not surprising, since Kot Diji is located just northwest of the Sothi-Siswal zone. Some pottery from Sothi-Siswal even turns up farther south in the Ahar-Banas region of southeastern Rajasthan.

Rangpur: Pottery on the Saurashtra Peninsula

Rangpur is near Vanala, between the Gulf of Khambhat and the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat. It lies close to the major Harappan site of Lothal. Excavations began in 1931 and continued into the 1950s under the Archaeological Survey of India.

The site contains four main periods. Period I had microliths but no pottery, around 3000 BCE. Period II marks the Harappan phase, from 2000 to 1500 BCE. After that, the Late Harappan and transitional phases lasted until 1000 BCE. By Period III, the area entered the Lustrous Red Ware phase, from 1000 to 800 BCE.

Some layers include older stone tools like scrapers and blades made from jasper. Over time, the site shows clear changes in material culture, with pottery styles changing alongside other tools and techniques.

A Web of Connected Cultures

Each of these sites has its own story, but together they form a larger pattern. From Kunal to Rangpur, ancient settlements across India and Pakistan developed pottery styles that show both shared knowledge and local innovation.

Distinct Cultures Around the Indus Valley Civilization

Several ancient cultures in South Asia developed independently from the Indus Valley Civilization. These groups had their own pottery styles, tools, and artifacts that set them apart from the typical phases of the IVC. Even though they existed either before or alongside the Indus Valley, their traditions show clear differences in how they shaped clay, designed pottery, and built settlements.

Some of these cultures appeared earlier than the IVC and are found in regions later occupied by Harappan cities. Others lived during the same time as the IVC but settled along the outer edges of the core Indus region. They often had contact with the Harappan world through trade, which is why some pottery and items from these cultures carry hints of Harappan influence. In many cases, higher layers at these sites even show true Harappan pottery, likely from a later time when IVC influence expanded.

How These Cultures Are Classified

Scholars usually group these cultures into three types. The first group includes those that came before the IVC. These predate the Early Harappan period but sometimes overlap with its early stages. The second group includes those that lived during the same period as the IVC but had their own distinct features. They shared some trade routes and ideas with Harappan cities but kept their own styles. The third group falls under a broader view of the IVC itself. These are classified as subtypes of the three Harappan phases and are sometimes called Proto-Harappan or Pre-Harappan. This wider classification allows more diversity in time, location, and material culture within the IVC framework.

For example, if a culture appeared during the Early Harappan period but had unique pottery or building styles, it might be listed as a subtype of that phase. This flexible system helps account for both the differences and the overlaps seen at these archaeological sites.

Cultures from the Early Harappan Period

Between 3200 and 2600 BCE, many cultures existed alongside early Harappan settlements. These included the Ahar-Banas, Amri-Nal, Damb-Sadat, Kot Diji, and Sothi-Siswal cultures. The main site of this phase, Harappa, itself has layers that go back to around 3500 BCE. These communities were mostly small villages. People farmed, raised animals, and worked in skilled trades. Over time, some of them grew into larger, more organized cities, forming the urban base of the Mature Harappan phase.

Cultures from the Mature Harappan Period

Between 2600 and 1900 BCE, during the height of the Indus Valley Civilization, other cultures such as Bara, Kunal, and Rangpur were active. Some of these cultures even started earlier than the Early Harappan phase, showing that regional traditions had deep roots.

Even during this mature period, not all sites followed the same model. Some stayed as village centers with their own styles of pottery and daily life. Others gradually adopted more urban features. This mix of cultural independence and shared practices is part of what made the Indus Valley world so wide and complex.

Pottery Traditions Before and During the Indus Valley Civilization

The craft of pottery in India began long before the Indus Valley Civilization. It can be traced to the Mesolithic period, when people made rough, hand-shaped vessels out of clay. These early pots came in natural colors like red, brown, black, orange, and cream. They were simple and practical.

During the IVC, pottery became more refined. Artisans used both hand-building and wheels to make their items. These pieces had clean shapes and often carried painted designs. Some pots were used daily, while others likely served special roles in rituals or trade.

This long history of pottery, stretching from the earliest handmade bowls to the finely made ceramics of the Indus Valley, shows how important clay was to daily life in ancient India.

 

Early Harappan Pottery and the Rise of Regional Cultures

Pottery from the Early Harappan period shows how local cultures developed before the height of the Indus Valley Civilization. Around 3500 BCE, the Damb-Sadat culture emerged in the region that’s now Balochistan in Pakistan and parts of Iran. Archaeologists identified it as its own cultural group because of the distinct pottery styles found there. These clay items show a mix of techniques and forms not seen in other regions at the time.

One of the key early sites is Kot Diji in Sindh, dated around 3300 BCE. This site gives us an early look at pre-Harappan settlements. The pottery there marks the start of more advanced ceramic work, laying the groundwork for what came next in the Indus Valley.

Mature Harappan Phase and Pottery Across Regions

By 2600 BCE, the Indus Valley Civilization had entered its Mature phase. Harappa was the main site, but pottery from this era has been found all over. In India, places like Rakhigarhi, Kunal, Birrana, and Siswal in Haryana, and Sothi in Rajasthan, all show earlier layers beneath the mature Harappan phase. These older cultural levels had their own pottery styles before they blended with the growing Harappan traditions.

On the Pakistani side, sites like Mehrgarh and Amri also reveal long histories of pottery-making. The ceramics from this mature period are more refined. They include well-fired vessels, smooth finishes, and more complex shapes. These pots were both functional and decorative, showing off both technical skill and design.

The Late Harappan Phase and Changing Pottery Traditions

After 1900 BCE, the Harappan cities began to decline. But pottery work didn’t stop. Instead, new cultures started to take shape. In Punjab, the Cemetery H culture appeared. At the same time, Jhukar and Jhangar cultures took root in Sindh, while Gujarat developed its own style through the Rangpur culture.

The Rangpur culture in Gujarat kept trading with other parts of the Indus Valley. Its pottery was different but still showed signs of shared influence. These local styles didn’t just survive the collapse of Harappan cities. They evolved and continued on their own.

Bara Culture in the Himalayan Foothills

Around 2000 BCE, the Bara culture emerged near the foothills of the Shivalik mountains. This region stretches across Punjab, Haryana, and parts of western Uttar Pradesh. Located between the Yamuna and Sutlej rivers, it formed a cultural bridge between the plains and the hills.

The pottery from this area had its own look, different from the larger Harappan cities. The Bara pots were hand-built, with strong shapes and bold surface treatments. These items served both domestic and ritual purposes, showing how clay work adapted to regional needs.

Cemetery H Culture and Its Role in Transition

The Cemetery H culture lasted from about 1900 to 1300 BCE. It’s often seen as part of the final Harappan phase. Found in Punjab and northwestern India, this culture is named after a burial site at Harappa called Area H.

Unlike the urban phase that came before, this culture focused more on rural settlements. The pottery was often simpler but still carefully made. It included painted urns and storage vessels used in burials. Some scholars link Cemetery H to the early movement of Indo-Aryan people into the region.

But not everyone agrees. Some researchers, like Kenoyer, believe this cultural change was more about changes in how people lived rather than a collapse or invasion. The pottery supports that idea: it's new, but not disconnected from the older Harappan designs.

Jhukar and Jhangar Cultures in Sindh

During the same period, the Jhukar culture developed in Sindh. This was a Late Bronze Age culture named after the site at Jhukar. It followed the mature Indus phase but had a different feel. Jhukar pottery is less polished, and the settlements were smaller.

Later, the Jhangar phase came along. It wasn’t urban at all. People lived as nomads or semi-nomads. They didn’t build cities, and their pottery was rough and handmade. These communities were pastoral, moving from place to place with their herds. Jhangar pots are basic, showing that clay use had switched from city production to a survival tool for mobile groups.

Urban life in Sindh didn’t pick up again until after 500 BCE, long after the Jhangar period ended.

Pottery in the Vedic Period

From around 1500 to 500 BCE, the Vedic period took hold in northern India. This era followed the decline of the Harappan world. The Gandhara grave culture, Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, and Cemetery H culture are sometimes seen as stepping stones to the Vedic civilization.

Vedic texts mention pottery often. Scholars like Wilhelm Rau looked at the Black Yajur Veda and Taittiriya Samhita and found that pottery from this time was mostly handmade and not painted. It was used for rituals, daily tasks, and storage.

According to some researchers, this type of pottery doesn’t match anything from Central Asia or Asia Minor. But it does have some overlap with ceramics from the Andronovo culture, a group in Central Asia with a nomadic lifestyle.

These connections suggest that Vedic pottery had its own path, blending new ideas with older local traditions. It was simple, practical, and deeply tied to religious life.

Ochre Coloured Pottery Culture in Eastern Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan (2000 to 1500 BCE)

The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, known as OCP, was a Bronze Age culture that existed across the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It stretched from eastern Punjab through western Uttar Pradesh and reached into northeastern Rajasthan. Most scholars date this culture to between 2000 and 1500 BCE.

The OCP shared features with both the Late Harappan phase and early Vedic culture. Some archaeologists see it as a direct continuation of the earlier Bara style, which was part of the broader Harappan tradition. Others think it may have formed from outside influence, possibly through Indo-Iranian migrations that interacted with the remaining Harappan communities.

OCP represents the final stage of the Bronze Age in North India. After OCP faded out, it was followed by the Painted Grey Ware culture and later by the Northern Black Polished Ware culture, which marked the beginning of the Iron Age in the region.

Where OCP Sites Were Found

The culture’s pottery first appeared near Jodhpura in Rajasthan, which dates back to the third millennium BCE. Note that this is not the city of Jodhpur but a site in Jaipur district. OCP settlements often developed along the Sahibi River and its smaller branches, like the Krishnavati and Soti rivers. These rivers flowed northeast from the Aravalli range and eventually dried up near Mahendragarh in Haryana.

Important OCP sites include Atranjikhera, Lal Qila, Jhinjhana, and Nasirpur. These settlements were active between 2600 and 1200 BCE. The culture later spread into the Gangetic plain during the early second millennium.

A recent excavation in Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh, turned up copper axes and pottery pieces that fit the OCP style. The pottery had a red slip and left an ochre stain on the hands of archaeologists who handled it, which is how the culture got its name.

How the Pottery Looked and What Was Found With It

The pottery was mostly simple and handmade. Some pieces had black paint in banded patterns. Others showed incised lines or decorations. These items were often found along with copper hoards, which included tools, weapons, and human or animal figures made from copper. These hoards give clues about the everyday life, craftwork, and rituals of OCP communities.

Rural Lifestyle and Daily Practices

OCP society was mainly rural and focused on farming. They grew crops like rice, barley, and various legumes. They also raised animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and dogs. Most of the sites were small villages, but they were densely packed across the region.

People lived in wattle-and-daub houses, which were made using a wooden frame covered in mud. Besides pottery and copper items, archaeologists have found clay figurines of people and animals, plus ornaments made from terracotta and metal.

Connections to Harappan and Indo-Iranian Cultures

There’s still debate about where the OCP came from. Some experts say it grew out of the Late Harappan culture, while others think it developed separately but at the same time. Archaeologist Akinori Uesugi puts the OCP period around 1900 to 1300 BCE and links it to the Bara culture, which was part of the Ghaggar valley tradition from the Indus Civilization. He calls it the Bara-OCP cultural complex.

Another angle comes from Parpola, who links the use of carts at OCP sites to Indo-Iranian traditions. A burial site in Sinauli had carts that the Archaeological Survey of India described as horse-drawn chariots. Parpola disagrees. He believes they were bullock carts and suggests they were brought by early Indo-Iranian migrants. According to him, these migrants came through the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex and likely spoke Proto-Indo-Iranian. They mixed with the local Harappan groups and were later followed by early Indo-Aryans.

Language and Writing in the OCP Region

Researcher Kumar points out that even though the eastern OCP area didn’t use the Indus script, the culture across the entire OCP zone had a shared material lifestyle and likely a common language. Between 2500 and 2000 BCE, people living in the upper Ganga valley were using the Indus script, showing how close the cultural ties were between the OCP and the Harappan world.

The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture shows how old traditions remained and changed during a time of major change. It bridges the gap between the end of the Harappan age and the rise of new cultures in the early Iron Age. Its tools, farming, and burial methods give a glimpse into how people lived, traded, and adapted in a fast-changing world.

 

Copper Hoard Culture in Delhi and Uttar Pradesh (2800 to 1500 BCE)

The Copper Hoard culture shows up in large parts of North India, especially around Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh. Most of the finds are copper tools and weapons buried in groups, often called hoards. These items mostly date to the later part of the second millennium BCE, though exact dates are hard to pin down because many pieces were not found in controlled digs.

This culture is often connected with the Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) tradition, which itself is linked to the Late Harappan phase. That overlap suggests the Copper Hoard culture came at a time when older Harappan traits were still present but fading.

The metal objects include axes, harpoons, swords, and figures shaped like humans or animals. Many of these are now housed in local museums, like the Kanya Gurukul Museum in Narela, and in parts of Haryana. These finds show that North India already had metalworking communities long before the rise of cities in the Iron Age.

Gandhara Grave Culture in Afghanistan and Northwest Pakistan (1500 to 500 BCE)

The Gandhara Grave culture, also called the Swat culture, started around 1600 BCE and lasted until 500 BCE. It covered areas in modern-day northwest Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. Archaeologists believe this culture is tied to early Indo-Aryan migrants, who came from the Bactria–Margiana region and moved into the Indian subcontinent.

This culture was based in the valleys and hills of Gandhara. The graves often held pottery, tools, ornaments, and bones, giving clear signs of ritual burial. Many scholars think this group mixed with the remains of older cultures, like the Indus Valley Civilization and Ochre Coloured Pottery cultures.

Some theories suggest that this mix helped form the roots of the Vedic tradition in India. Over time, the culture's influence faded, but it marked an early chapter in the shift from Bronze to Iron Age in the northwest region.

Black and Red Ware Culture in Northern and Central India (1450 to 1200 BCE)

The Black and Red Ware culture, known as BRW, came up during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. It spread across northern and central parts of the Indian subcontinent. In the western Ganges region, mostly around western Uttar Pradesh, it lasted from around 1450 to 1200 BCE and was followed by the Painted Grey Ware culture.

In central and eastern areas, including Bihar, Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh, BRW lasted longer, stretching up to 700 or even 500 BCE. It was then replaced by the Northern Black Polished Ware phase.

The BRW pottery is marked by a black top and red bottom. It is often linked with farming life. People grew rice, barley, and lentils, and used basic tools made of copper and stone. Ornaments made of shell, carnelian, copper, and terracotta were common.

In some places, like eastern Punjab and Gujarat, BRW pottery appears alongside Late Harappan pieces. Some experts believe this culture may have helped shape the later Painted Grey Ware and Northern Black Polished Ware traditions.

Painted Grey Ware Culture in Western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and Eastern Punjab (1200 to 600 BCE)

The Painted Grey Ware culture, often shortened to PGW, belongs to the Iron Age and lasted from around 1200 BCE to 600 BCE. It covered the western part of the Ganges plain, including regions of western Uttar Pradesh, eastern Punjab, and Haryana.

PGW pottery is usually fine grey ware painted with simple black designs. The sites often show signs of settled life, including farming, use of iron tools, and animal domestication. This culture is thought to link closely with the later Vedic period, when large tribal kingdoms like Kuru and Panchala began to form.

PGW followed the Black and Red Ware phase in this area and stood as the next major cultural step in early historic North India. The settlements started small but slowly grew in size, showing how people were moving toward organized states and long-term communities.

Northern Black Polished Ware Culture in Northern India (700 to 200 BCE)

The Northern Black Polished Ware culture, or NBPW, marked a major urban phase in ancient North India. It ran from about 700 BCE to 200 BCE. This period saw rapid growth of towns and cities, as well as the rise of large kingdoms.

NBPW followed both the Painted Grey Ware and the Black and Red Ware phases. Its pottery was glossy, dark-colored, and well-finished, usually found in urban centers. This culture peaked between 500 and 300 BCE, during the time of the mahajanapadas, the sixteen large states that spread across North India.

Later, this period gave way to the Mauryan Empire. By then, cities had developed trade links, coinage systems, and more structured governments. The polished pottery pieces from this time are among the best examples of early craft and trade in Iron Age India.

Red Polished Ware in Gujarat and Other Regions (300 BCE to 1000 CE)

Red Polished Ware, or RPW, first showed up around 300 BCE and lasted till 1000 CE. It was most common in Gujarat, especially in the Kathiawar region. Most of the pottery was for daily use, like cooking pots and storage vessels. These finds are scattered across Baroda, Vadnagar, Prabhas, Sutrapada, and other places in western India.

RPW was once believed to show links with Roman trade because of its fine finish, similar to Roman Samian Ware. But later studies showed it was locally made. Archaeologists pointed out that none of the shapes matched Roman styles.

Instead, the vessels show more in common with earlier Indian pottery like Black Polished Ware. There are two types within RPW. One type was for household use and stayed local to Gujarat and surrounding regions. The other type includes special jars like sprinklers and spouted vessels, which spread widely across India and Southeast Asia.

In places like Tissamaharama in southern Sri Lanka, these vessels show up in deep and well-dated layers, proving they were part of long-lasting trade and cultural exchange across the Indian Ocean. Over time, this group continued into the early medieval period, showing how far Indian ceramics and trade networks had reached.

 

Early Red Polished Ware and Its Place in North Indian Pottery Traditions

Early Red Polished Ware in North India is often linked with Northern Black Polished Ware, or NBP. It dates as far back as the 3rd century BCE. Red Polished Ware didn’t just stop there. It shows up again during the Kushan era from around 39 to 375 CE. It continued through the Gupta period from the 4th to early 6th century CE, and into the Vardhan era of the 6th to 7th century CE. One site where this pottery has been uncovered is Harsh Ka Tila in present-day Haryana.

Malwa Culture in Madhya Pradesh and Northern Maharashtra (1600 BCE to 1300 BCE)

The Malwa culture developed during the Chalcolithic period and was centered in the Malwa region of Central India and parts of northern Maharashtra. Most estimates place this culture between 1600 and 1300 BCE. However, newer carbon dating suggests it might go as far back as 2000 to 1750 BCE. One detail that sets this culture apart is their pottery-making method. They didn’t use a potter’s wheel. Everything was made by hand.

Jorwe Culture in Maharashtra (1000 to 700 BCE)

Jorwe culture was another Chalcolithic tradition found mostly in Maharashtra and reaching north into Madhya Pradesh’s Malwa region. The culture gets its name from the site of Jorwe. The early phase lasted from 1400 to 1000 BCE, while the later period continued from 1000 to 700 BCE. Jorwe sites are known for distinct pottery styles and for expanding settled farming in western India.

Rang Mahal Culture on the Sarasvati River Channel (1st to 7th Century CE)

The Rang Mahal culture thrived along the dry course of the Ghaggar-Hakra, once part of the Sarasvati-Drishadvati system. It developed after the Vedic period, between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. These sites are spread across areas like Sriganganagar, Suratgarh, Sikar, Alwar, and Jhunjhunu in parts of Rajasthan, Haryana, and eastern Punjab.

The culture is named after a site called Rang Mahal, where Swedish archaeologists first dug up painted pottery and terracotta from the early Gupta period. The pottery stands out for its bright red surface, often covered in painted designs. The decorations include floral, bird, animal, and geometric patterns in black paint. This period falls within the time of Kushan and Gupta rule in India.

Glazed Pottery During the Medieval Period (13th to 18th Century CE)

Glazed pottery began appearing in northern India during the 13th century CE. When Turkic rulers came to power, they brought skilled potters from Persia and Central Asia. These craftsmen helped introduce new pottery styles, including Persian-style glaze mixed with Indian patterns. This type of glazed pottery has been found in places like Gujarat and Maharashtra and dates back to the Sultanate period.

 

Jaipur’s Blue Pottery: A Traditional Art with Central Asian Roots

Jaipur’s blue pottery stands out as a well-known craft from Rajasthan. The name comes from the cobalt blue dye used in the designs. This style is related to other blue and white pottery traditions found across Eurasia. Its shape and patterns draw from Islamic ceramics and, to some extent, from Chinese porcelain.

Although the style was heavily influenced by Persian ceramic art, Jaipur’s version developed its own voice. Local designs often include birds, flowers, and animals from Indian nature. You can also see Persian-inspired geometry mixed into some pieces. Many of these items show Mughal touches, like arabesque patterns and animal motifs. Interestingly, the use of animal designs was not allowed in Persian Islamic art, but Jaipur adapted and made it part of the style.

This pottery isn’t made with clay. The base is a mix of quartz powder, crushed glass, fuller’s earth, borax, natural gum, and water. Some artisans also add Katira Gond powder and soda bicarbonate to strengthen it. Once the dough is formed, the pieces are glazed and fired at a low temperature, just once. That makes the pottery fragile but waterproof and usable for everyday purposes.

Items made from Jaipur blue pottery are usually decorative. They include trays, ashtrays, vases, bowls, tiles, and small storage containers. The color palette mostly sticks to cobalt blue, copper green, and white, though sometimes artists include yellow and brown. The painting is done while the pot spins, giving the designs a smooth and even look.

The glazing technique came from Central Asia. Mongol artisans were the first to combine Chinese glaze methods with Persian art. This technique traveled with Turkic invaders who brought it to India. At first, blue-glazed tiles were used in mosque and tomb decorations. Later, Indian potters adopted the method and began making pottery instead of just architectural tiles. The craft spread from Delhi to Jaipur in the 17th century.

Some stories say blue pottery came to Jaipur later, during the reign of Sawai Ram Singh II in the 19th century. He sent local artists to Delhi to learn the skill. Early examples can still be seen at Rambagh Palace, where fountains are covered in blue-tiled work. Sawai Ram Singh promoted many art forms in his time and played a major role in developing blue pottery in Jaipur.

By 1916, records show that Jaipur’s version of the craft was already being seen as more refined than the earlier Delhi pottery. His successor, Sawai Madho Singh, hosted an industrial arts fair in 1883. Jaipur’s blue pottery pieces were featured alongside other crafts. Some of the best works from the show were displayed in a museum-like setting. Many of the artists had been trained at an art school set up by the king, under the direction of Opendronath Sen, who strongly supported the blue pottery tradition.

By the 1950s, the craft had almost vanished. It was revived by painter and muralist Kripal Singh Shekhawat, with help from supporters like Kamladevi Chattopadhyay and Rajmata Gayatri Devi. Today, blue pottery is a major craft industry in Jaipur. Even with new shapes and products, the pottery stays loyal to its original color schemes and traditional designs.

Some of the finest examples of Jaipur blue pottery can still be seen at the Rambagh Palace, especially in the Polo Bar and the Maharani Suite. These works continue to show the legacy of royal support and the deep artistic roots of this craft.

The Making of Jaipur Blue Pottery

Blue pottery from Jaipur is known for its vivid color, smooth glaze, and unique feel. Unlike regular pottery, it doesn’t use clay. That’s what makes it so distinct. The process of making it is slow, detailed, and delicate. It takes time, skill, and a steady hand.

To start, artisans mix quartz powder, glass powder, borax, gum, and Multani mitti. Water is added to knead these into a dough. This mixture gets rolled out into thin round sheets, about 4 to 5 millimeters thick. These are laid into molds filled with pebbles and ash. The molds, made of plaster of Paris, are kept in good condition so they can be used again and again.

Once the shape sets, the mold is removed, and the pottery is left to dry for a day or two. After drying, each piece is cleaned and shaped by hand. Then it gets a sanding to smooth out the surface and prepare it for decoration.

Designs are sketched directly onto the pottery. Artists use traditional patterns or modern styles depending on the product. After painting, a glaze is applied. When everything is dry, the pottery goes into the kiln.

Firing the Pottery in the Kiln

Artisans used to pray before starting the furnace. Some still do. It’s a tricky step. If anything goes wrong, the piece might crack. The firing takes about 4 to 5 hours, and the temperature must be kept steady. Once fired, the kiln is left to cool completely. That can take up to three days. Only after that, the finished pieces are removed. They’re cleaned gently and then either displayed or packed for sale.

Changes in the Craft Over Time

Jaipur’s blue pottery has changed a lot. Earlier, the glaze used lead. But with people more aware of health risks, most workshops now use lead-free glazes. Many potters have switched from wood-fired kilns to diesel ones. This cuts pollution and makes temperature control easier.

Designs have also changed. Old floral and geometric patterns are still common, but many artists are adding modern themes to match today’s tastes. That helps blue pottery stay relevant.

The Revival of Jaipur Blue Pottery

At one point, the craft was fading. Fewer people were buying, and many artisans left the work. But artist Kripal Singh Shekhawat saw what was happening and stepped in. He worked hard to save the art. With help from Maharani Gayatri Devi and others, he pushed to bring blue pottery back into focus.

His studio, Kripal Kumbh, still runs in Jaipur. It played a big part in the revival. Other groups also joined in. RUDA, a group launched in 1995 to support rural artisans, worked to help blue pottery reach global markets.

Another key figure was Leela Bordia. Trained in ceramics in the US, she introduced blue pottery in new forms like beads, pendants, and necklaces. She also brought it into home decor with tiles and fittings. That helped reach interior designers and new customers.

Training and Keeping the Craft Alive

To keep the art going, training is key. Sawai Ram Singh Shilp Kala Mandir in Jaipur is one of the main centers for this. Many local artists also hold short workshops in their own studios. These help teach new people and keep the craft active.

If blue pottery is going to grow, more needs to be done. Artists need access to standard tools. They need to expand into making useful items, not just decorative ones. And they need more ways to market their work and reach wider audiences.

Jaipur’s blue pottery stands out for its color and craft. It’s an old art that still speaks to modern buyers. With the right support, it can keep evolving and hold its place in the world of handmade design.

 

Evolution of Pottery Styles in India

Pottery in India started with a simple clay-molding technique. Over time, it grew into a rich art form with several unique styles. As tools, materials, and local tastes changed, potters developed different methods and traditions. The most well-known types today include unglazed pottery, glazed pottery, terracotta work, and papier-mâché crafts.

Unglazed Pottery: India’s Oldest Pottery Form

Unglazed pottery is the oldest pottery style in India. It includes three main types. The first is paper-thin pottery. These pieces are light, biscuit-colored, and often marked with neat incised lines. The second type uses a scraffito method. Here, pots like the matka are polished and covered with red and white slip. Artists then carve out intricate patterns to bring out both color layers. The third is polished pottery. This one is stronger and deeper in color. It usually features stylized, carved designs that often look like flowing arabesques.

Glazed Pottery: Rare in Ancient Times, Grew Later

Early glazed pottery wasn’t very common in ancient India. Most glazed items from the Neolithic period were used for small objects like beads, seals, and bangles. These were usually made in light blue and green tones. Some were red, white, dark blue, or even black. But you rarely saw these glazes on actual pots or jars.

Glazed pottery became more noticeable around the 12th century CE. These pieces often had a white base with blue and green painted patterns. This type of pottery wasn’t widespread and remained limited to a few areas in the country.

Terracotta Sculpture: A Longstanding Indian Tradition

Terracotta refers to unglazed earthenware. It also includes sculptures made from this kind of clay. From early on, terracotta played a major role in Indian art. Stone and metal sculptures were less common. Over time, especially by the first century BCE, most artists stopped shaping figures by hand. Instead, they started using molds. This change allowed them to make larger pieces, including near-life-size figures during the Gupta period and shortly after.

Even today, terracotta sculpture remains a living folk tradition. In many rural places, people mold clay deities during festivals and rituals. In Moela, clay is shaped directly onto flat surfaces, then fired and painted in bright colors. Similar styles are used in other areas to create horse figures with riders, often given as ritual offerings.

Bankura Horse: A Symbol of Indian Folk Art

One of the best-known terracotta creations is the Bankura horse. It comes from Panchmura village in Bankura district, West Bengal. These horses are admired for their clean form and simple yet striking design. They were once part of local religious customs. Now, they are known worldwide as symbols of Indian folk art. The All India Handicrafts logo features this horse.

Terracotta work in India dates back thousands of years. In many villages, pipal trees stand surrounded by clay animals. These serve as symbols of wishes fulfilled. Today, potters blend old village styles with modern tastes to meet global demand.

Panchmura, Rajagram, Sonamukhi, and Hamirpur are the main centers for making terracotta horses and elephants. Each town has its own signature style. But Panchmura pottery is seen as the most refined.

Potters create the hollow horses in separate pieces on the wheel. They shape each leg, the neck in two parts, and the face. That’s seven pieces in total. These parts are joined together with extra clay to smooth out any gaps. Ears and tails are made using molds and slotted into grooves. The figure then dries in the sun.

After initial sun-drying, small holes are made in the body to help the clay dry evenly inside and out. Uneven drying can cause cracks. So after this, the sculpture is kept in a closed room at normal temperature for six or seven days. Then it’s brought back into the sun and fired in a kiln.

The color of the terracotta depends on the firing method. To get a red finish, potters allow smoke to escape from the kiln, creating an oxidizing environment. For black, they seal the vents to trap the smoke, creating a reducing atmosphere.

Over time, these clay figures have become less realistic and more abstract. Potters across regions started to highlight certain features instead of aiming for full, accurate animal shapes. This change made the designs more expressive and symbolic.

 

Kulhars: Traditional Disposable Clay Cups of India

Kulhars are small, handleless cups made from unglazed clay. They’ve been used in South Asia for centuries, especially in India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. Locally, they go by many names: kulhar, kulhad, bhar, or matir bhar. They're always disposable and almost never reused.

You’ll often find kulhars at street stalls or village markets. Vendors serve hot drinks like tea or milk in them. Some places also use them for desserts like kulfi or sweet curd. The cup absorbs a bit of the liquid, giving the drink a mild earthy scent. This scent, known as sondhi khushboo, makes the experience more pleasant for many people.

Clay kulhars have been around for thousands of years. They may have first been used as far back as the Indus Valley civilization, over 5,000 years ago. But in recent decades, most food vendors have switched to plastic or paper cups. These are lighter, cheaper, and easier to carry in bulk.

Efforts to Bring Kulhars Back

In 2004, Indian Railways tried to bring kulhars back for serving tea on trains and at stations. The idea was to promote hygiene and reduce plastic waste. Since kulhars are made from natural clay, they don’t pollute like plastic. Supporters also said this could help create more jobs for village potters.

But the plan faced several issues. Critics pointed out that firing that many kulhars in kilns would use a lot of fuel and release smoke. Some worried that making billions of clay cups every year would strip away topsoil. Others said the benefits to village potters were too small to matter.

Environmentalists disagreed about how eco-friendly kulhars really are. Some argued that they take too long to break down. But others pointed out that ancient Indus Valley shards still survive today, showing how durable they are. This same durability was also used to claim they could be a cleaner and safer alternative to plastic.

Why the Revival Didn't Work

In the end, kulhars didn’t last on the trains. By 2008, most stations had gone back to plastic and coated-paper cups. The main reasons were cost and convenience. One kulhar cost about 140 paisa to make. A paper cup cost under 10 paisa. Paper and plastic are also easier to store and transport.

There were more practical problems too. Since kulhars soak up some of the tea, vendors had to pour more into each one. This meant they lost money with each cup. The weight of the clay cups made bulk delivery harder and more expensive as well.

Still, some upscale cafes and restaurants in India serve kulhar wali chai to give customers a nostalgic or earthy experience. But for everyday use, especially in busy or mobile settings, kulhars have mostly faded away. They’re now more of a cultural memory than a daily habit.