History of Ancient Roman Ceramics: Pottery, Terracotta, and Clay Artifacts

Ancient Roman Pottery: Everyday Clay in an Empire Built to Last

Pottery in ancient Rome was everywhere. It wasn’t fancy or rare. It was made in massive amounts and used for everyday things. You find it scattered all across the old Roman Empire and even past its borders. One spot in Rome, called Monte Testaccio, is just a giant pile of broken pots. These weren’t decorative pieces. Most were amphorae used to carry stuff like Spanish olive oil. That oil wasn’t just for cooking. It was fuel for lamps, used in Roman kitchens, and part of their bathhouse routines.

Coarse Wares and Fine Wares: Rome’s Two Main Types of Pottery

Roman pottery comes in two big categories: coarse wares and fine wares. Coarse wares were the plain stuff - cooking pots, storage jars, and bowls. People used them daily, and most were made and sold locally. You could find them in kitchens, marketplaces, and homes across towns.

Fine wares were different. These were the nicer, more decorative table pieces. They showed up at formal meals and were built to look polished. These weren’t random homemade goods. They came out of specialized pottery workshops. A lot of these places produced at a massive scale. Their output was uniform, easy to classify, and made to travel. That’s why you’ll find the same styles of Roman fine ware showing up far from where they were made.

Even in Roman Britain, potters made their own versions of both coarse and fine ware. Still, imports kept flowing in from other provinces. One major example is terra sigillata, a glossy red fine ware that came from industrial-sized workshops. These places worked like factories. They cranked out consistent styles of pottery that got traded far and wide.

Not Greek, but Still Worth Noticing

Roman pottery never reached the artistic level of Greek vase painting. You won’t find many Roman pieces that qualify as museum-level art. But there’s still a ton of good-quality tableware and lots of small figurines. These were often built into oil lamps or made as little statues. Many had religious or erotic designs.

Because Roman burial practices changed over time and weren’t the same everywhere, complete pottery pieces in graves aren’t always easy to come by. Most of what we find are broken fragments, but there are tons of them. This leftover material helps archaeologists piece together what daily life looked like.

The real strength of Roman pottery wasn’t luxury. It was quality at scale. Rich Romans might’ve shown off glassware or metal plates made of silver and gold, but even then, fine pottery was everywhere. Relief decorations, made using molds, added detail. Many potters copied metal designs in their clay work. These designs were more about texture than color. In the Eastern parts of the Empire, you’ll also see blends of Roman and local pottery styles.

But by the 3rd century CE, things started sliding downhill. Fine pottery lost its edge. Political unrest, economic issues, and the rise of glassware chipped away at its popularity. People with money had already moved on to silver cups and glass goblets.

Terracotta Beyond the Table

Fired clay didn’t stop at cups and bowls. Romans also used terracotta for bricks, tiles, and parts of buildings. Sometimes they used it for decoration, too. While archaeologists usually don’t group those under “pottery,” it’s all part of the same world. Clay lamps and small figurines also fall into this category.

Pottery is a key clue for archaeologists. It helps date and decode ancient sites. That’s why Roman pottery gets studied so much. From the Neolithic period all the way through the Roman era, pottery tells us who lived where, how they ate, and what they valued. In ancient Rome, clay was more than just dirt. It was a tool, a trade, and a window into everyday life.

How Roman Pottery Evolved Over Time

The way Romans made pottery didn’t stay the same. Early on, they shaped clay by hand. Later, they brought in the potter’s wheel, and eventually, molds became common. As new methods came in, decoration styles changed too. The tools and techniques changed across centuries, and because of that, pottery now helps archaeologists figure out how old a site is. During the Roman Empire, ceramic production exploded. Pottery was used for nearly everything, and the amount of research written about it is massive, spread across many languages.

What Made Terra Sigillata Stand Out

When archaeologists say "fine wares," they mean pottery made for serving food and drink, not for cooking or storing it. Romans had several types of fine pottery, including fragile drinking cups and glazed pieces. But one kind stands out more than the rest: terra sigillata. This was a red-gloss pottery made in Italy and Gaul. It was traded all across the Roman world between the 1st century BCE and the late 2nd century CE.

Terra sigillata has a smooth, glossy finish. The clay ranges from buff to pink and is well-fired, with a slip that looks orange to deep red. That shine comes naturally from the slip and firing process. The color, texture, shape, and patterns of the decorations make it possible to figure out where a piece came from, when it was made, and sometimes even which workshop produced it.

In the late Republic and early Empire, Arretine ware from Arezzo in Tuscany was the leading style. Later, samian ware from regions in Gaul took over. These terms have changed over time, depending on how the pieces were studied. Technically, these red-gloss wares share traits with older Greek pottery, but instead of painted scenes, they used raised patterns made with molds.

African Red Slip and Its Influence

African Red Slip ware, also known as ARS, was part of this same red-gloss tradition. It lasted longer than the Italian and Gaulish versions and stayed in production until Islamic rule took over those areas. ARS ended up shaping how Phocaean red slip was made, especially in the Eastern Mediterranean. You can still find traces of it in places like southern France and Britain.

Other parts of the empire had their own red-gloss styles. Eastern Sigillata was made in Asia Minor and nearby regions. In Iberia, local potters created terra sigillata hispanica. It had some overlap with Gaulish styles but kept a regional flavor.

Mass Production and Factory Marks

Most of this pottery wasn’t made in small batches. It was mass-produced. Some kilns could fire up to 40,000 pieces at once. These workshops weren’t random setups. They used skilled labor and were organized with a high level of precision.

Many pieces had potters' marks stamped onto them. These stamps often help identify who made the piece, where, and even when. One major name in the field was Cnaius Ateius. His pottery came from Arezzo, but modern tests show that his wares were also made in Pisa and at branches in places like Lyon and La Graufesenque in what’s now France.

Still, these stamps can be tricky. Some stamped names show the factory. Others show the specific craftsman who made or finished the bowl. Mold-makers sometimes signed their tools, and those names show up in the design itself. So, a single bowl could carry several names: the person who shaped it, the one who decorated it, and the factory brand that sold it.

Workforce and Global Reach

It’s unclear if slave labor ran the Italian workshops. Some names stamped on pottery belong to freed slaves, so there’s no clear answer. One site that’s been heavily studied is La Graufesenque in South Gaul, near modern-day Millau. This place produced a huge amount of terra sigillata, especially in the late 1st century CE. The pottery from there traveled far. Shards have been found as far as India, Sudan, and Scotland. That shows how deeply Roman pottery spread across the ancient world, both through trade and empire.

How Roman Pottery Shapes Got Their Names

Back in 1895, a German scholar named Hans Dragendorff created a system to label different shapes of Roman red gloss pottery. His numbering method stuck. So when you see something like "Drag. 27" or "Dr.27", that’s referring to a certain type of small Roman cup with a rounded profile. His system helped bring some order to a huge variety of pottery types.

Later, other archaeologists added their own shape numbers. Some focused on pottery from specific sites. Others built new systems based on big digs or detailed finds. Because of all that, we now have multiple ways to classify Roman pottery. You’ll see Hayes numbers used for African Red Slip ware. For Italian and Gaulish sigillata, you’ll find names like Déchelette, Knorr, Curle, Walters, Loeschcke, Ritterling, and Ludowici. Each system is tied to its own region or research focus.

How Romans Made Relief Designs on Terra Sigillata

One of the most common Roman pottery styles was terra sigillata. The relief decorations on these pieces weren’t painted. They were formed using molds. The basic process went like this: potters would throw a clay bowl where the inside shape matched the outside of the final product. That inner surface was then carved with the design.

They used small stamps made of fired clay, or rollers that imprinted repeating patterns, like the egg-and-tongue border called the ovolo. For finer details, a stylus could add touches by hand. Once the design was pressed into the mold, it was dried and fired. After that, it was ready to be used for shaping actual bowls.

When the clay was pressed into the mold and dried, it shrank just enough to be removed without breaking. Then potters would trim the rim, attach or shape the foot ring, and finish off the bowl. Every shape had its own tweaks. After that, the bowl got coated in slip, dried again, and finally fired.

Closed shapes like jugs or jars weren’t usually decorated using molds. But at La Graufesenque, some were made by forming the top and bottom separately in molds, then joining them where they were widest. Taller vessels, like vases or jars, often used sprig decorations or barbotine slip-trailing instead. These techniques were big at workshops in East Gaul, especially Rheinzabern, and turned up on many other Roman pottery types too.

Mass Production of Plain Sigillata Tableware

Not all terra sigillata was decorated. There was also plain sigillata, used for tableware. These were simple but precise. Potters used wheels and templates to get clean shapes and keep sizes consistent. The range included wide platters, shallow and deep bowls, and small cups. The standard sizing helped with firing and made packing and shipping easier.

Even these plain forms often followed the design styles seen in silver and glass tableware from the same time. That makes them useful for dating. Some of the plain pieces still had small decorative touches, like a ring of rouletting at the base of a dish. Many also had stamped maker’s marks.

African Red Slip: The Late Roman Leader in Tableware

As the Empire moved into the later Roman period, African Red Slip ware took over as the most common type of sigillata. It was made in Africa Proconsularis, which is now mostly Tunisia. ARS pottery was so widespread that examples have even been found in Britain from the 5th and 6th centuries CE.

Egypt also made similar styles for local use, though Egyptian pottery had its own rich and active tradition. ARS included bowls, dishes, and flagons. But by this time, full molded relief decoration had mostly stopped. Instead, potters used appliqué pieces to add designs. These were made separately and pressed onto the vessel before firing.

Stamped designs became popular, too. And in the later years, Christian images and symbols began showing up more often. These pieces show how the style changed as the Roman world changed. But the same clay-working skills stuck around, just adjusted to fit new needs and beliefs.

Other Fine Wares Across the Roman Empire

In the late first century BCE and early first century CE, potters in northeastern Gaul began making their own versions of Roman fine wares. They closely copied the shapes of Arretine plain wares. This pottery is known today as Gallo-Belgic ware. Many of these dishes and plates came with a red slip finish called terra rubra, or a black slip known as terra nigra. Potters often stamped their names onto these pieces, adding a personal mark to what was essentially mass-produced tableware.

Throughout the Roman Empire, local potters made thin-walled vessels like flagons, beakers, bowls, and serving dishes. You could find these even in far-off provinces like Britain. For example, Romano-British color-coated wares were made in places like Colchester and the Nene Valley. These were classified as fine wares, though they were locally made. Some surviving pieces include a large black beaker from the Nene Valley, decorated with an energetic hunting scene using a technique called barbotine, where liquid clay was applied to create raised designs.

Roman potters used a wide range of decoration techniques to dress up their pottery. Colored slips, painted patterns, and textured finishes were common. That said, Roman painting on pottery didn’t follow the old Greek or Etruscan styles. It wasn’t a luxury art form. Instead, the painted designs were usually simple. You’d see them on both coarse and fine pottery types all over the empire. Sometimes it’s hard to draw a clean line between what counted as fine ware, coarse ware, or even tableware versus cooking ware. In many cases, the same pot might serve more than one purpose.

Lead-Glazed Pottery and Decorative Glazes

Lead-glazed pottery was another important category. This glaze, which gave a shiny glass-like surface, showed up in many parts of the empire. It was used in Gaul, Italy, and across the eastern provinces. These glazed items were usually small, decorative pieces like cups with molded designs, oil lamps, and containers shaped like animals. The glaze colors ranged from golden amber to deep brown, and many different greens.

Egyptian Faience: Bright Colors and Glasslike Surfaces

In Egypt, another type of glazed ceramic called faience kept its place through the Roman period. These items stood out because of their bright blue, turquoise, or green glaze. During the first century BCE and first century CE, many of the shapes used in faience mimicked Arretine ware. Some faience pieces were highly decorated and featured more than one color.

Even though it gets grouped with pottery, Egyptian faience isn’t made from clay. It’s a non-clay ceramic, closer in composition to glass. Egyptologists often refer to it as frit or glazed composition. Its technical process has more in common with glassmaking than with pottery.

Blurring the Lines Between Pottery and Figurines

The boundary between vessels and figurines wasn’t always clear either. Some small containers, like oil pourers, were shaped like animals or people. These functional items often looked more like terracotta sculptures than standard pots. The Romans didn’t always separate art from utility. Many objects did both jobs.

Everyday Roman Pottery: Coarse Wares and How They Were Used

In ancient Rome, pottery was essential in every kitchen. Even though bronze and iron tools were common, most people still used simple clay bowls, jars, pans, and casseroles to cook meals. These ceramic vessels were cheap, easy to make, and reliable. They were part of daily life from one end of the empire to the other. Whether in Britain, Syria, Egypt, or Spain, people relied on their local pottery traditions for cooking. These old ways of making clay cookware stuck around for centuries, even under Roman rule, so studying Roman cooking pottery means looking at it region by region.

Some pieces were made for very specific tasks. For example, potters created small ceramic tools like cheese presses. Others made black jars, like the black-burnished ware that came from southwest Britain. This style actually started before the Romans arrived and stayed popular for a long time after. Roman influence only made it more widespread. It was produced in larger amounts and sold across a wider area. Other British-made coarse wares included Huntcliff ware, Crambeck ware, and Nene Valley Colour Coated Ware. That last one often came with added decoration.

One cooking tool that clearly shows the spread of Roman food culture was the mortarium. This was a thick, shallow bowl with a rough interior, sometimes made with added grit. Many had pouring lips and sturdy rims for easy use. Mortaria were used to crush herbs, grind spices, and prep ingredients. They were the Roman version of a food processor. Roman cooking was full of flavor and detail, and this tool helped make that possible.

Mortaria first showed up in Britain before the Romans officially took control in 43 CE. These early ones came from Gaul. That means Roman habits were already creeping into southern Britain, maybe through trade or even early settlers. Later, British potters started making their own mortaria in different regions. These local products spread throughout the province alongside imports. Archaeologists have found mortaria from at least sixteen different makers in Britain. Many of them have the stamp of the workshop on the rim. These stamped marks help researchers track trade and understand how the Roman economy moved goods.

Amphorae: The Roman Empire’s Storage and Shipping Solution

Another important type of Roman pottery was the amphora. These tall, two-handled clay containers were used to carry food across the empire. Most of the time, they held olive oil, wine, fish sauce (called garum), or fruit-based sauces. Their shape was built for storage and travel. They were strong, lightweight, and easy to load into ships. Amphorae usually had a narrow body with either a pointed or flat bottom. The pointed base let workers store them tightly in the ship’s hold. It also acted like a third handle when pouring.

Amphorae were a key part of Roman trade. They needed to be functional, but they also show us a lot about ancient transport and food supply. Over time, experts have studied them closely. The first person to create a proper system for identifying amphora types was Heinrich Dressel. In the late 1800s, he studied a huge dump of broken amphorae found in Rome and recorded almost 200 inscriptions from the vessels. His chart, called the Dressel table, is still used today.

Since then, other scholars have created more detailed systems. These are often named after the person who developed them. There are studies that focus on specific types of amphorae from different regions. Neo-Phoenician styles were looked at by Maña and later by van der Werff. Gallic versions were analyzed by Laubenheimer. Cretan amphorae were studied by Marangou-Lerat. Spanish types were mapped by Beltrán. Lamboglia handled the Adriatic examples. Broader studies of Western Mediterranean amphorae have been done by researchers like Panella and Peacock.

Amphorae help tell the story of Roman trade, food transport, and supply chains across the empire. Like coarse cooking pots and mortaria, they’re a key part of understanding how Romans lived, ate, and moved goods from one province to another.

How Roman Amphorae Were Made and Used

Roman amphorae were handmade from terracotta using a potter’s wheel. The body came first. Once shaped, it was left to dry for a bit. After that, potters added coils of clay to build the neck, rim, and handles. These parts were attached once the body was solid enough to hold them. After the amphora was finished, its inside was coated with resin. This lining helped seal the container and made it better for holding liquids like wine, oil, or sauce.

Most of what we know about how amphorae were made comes from modern pottery practices still found in parts of the eastern Mediterranean. Those living traditions help fill in the blanks where Roman records are missing.

Roman amphorae often came with markings. These included stamps, painted labels, and graffiti scratched into the surface. Each mark had a purpose and told part of the vessel’s story. Stamps were usually added when the clay was still damp and often showed the name of the workshop, or figlina, that made the amphora. Sometimes they also listed the owner’s name. Painted labels, called tituli picti, were added after the pot was fired. These listed details like the contents of the jar and its weight.

Different Amphora Types and What They Carried

The first known Roman amphora was called Dressel 1. It showed up in central Italy in the late 2nd century BCE. It had thick, heavy walls and a red clay body. These were sturdy, but their weight made them less efficient for trade.

By the mid-1st century BCE, a new type took over: Dressel 2 through 4. These were lighter and had thinner walls, so traders could fit more into a single shipment. A ship that could carry 4,500 Dressel 1 amphorae could hold 6,000 Dressel 2–4 in the same space. The same workshops that made Dressel 1 quickly switched to the newer design, and the older style disappeared almost overnight.

Around the same time, a new type called cadii cumani started being made in Cuma, southern Italy. These were used mainly for shipping fruit and stayed in use through the middle of the Empire. In central Italy, Spello amphorae were also being produced. These were small and meant for transporting wine.

Over on the Adriatic coast, earlier types were replaced by a new model called Lamboglia 2. It was a wine amphora made from the end of the 2nd century BCE through the 1st century BCE. Later, Lamboglia 2 evolved into Dressel 6A, which became the most common type during the reign of Augustus.

These changes in design weren’t random. Each change made the containers better suited to Roman trade. Lighter weight meant more product per trip. Standard shapes meant easier stacking and handling. And stamps and labels kept track of where goods came from and where they were going.

Roman Amphorae in the Western Provinces: Gallic and Spanish Claywork

In the Gallic provinces, early Roman amphorae weren’t original designs. They started as local copies of earlier Italian styles like Dressel 1, Dressel 2 through 4, Pascual 1, and Haltern 70. Real Gallic production got going later, mainly in Marseille, during the last years of Augustus’s rule. One standout was the Oberaden 74 amphora. It was made in such large amounts that it ended up shaping how some Italian versions looked and were built.

Spain, especially Hispania Baetica and Hispania Tarraconensis, became a major pottery hub during the late Republic. These regions, now parts of southwest and eastern Spain, ramped up production after land was handed out to veterans and new Roman colonies were founded. Spanish amphorae spread fast across the Mediterranean in the early days of the Roman Empire. Baetica led in volume and variety. That’s where you find Dressel 20, which held olive oil, Dressel 7 through 13, made for garum or fish sauce, and Haltern 70, used to ship defrutum, a thick fruit-based syrup. In Tarraconensis, the go-to style was Pascual 1, a wine amphora modeled on Dressel 1, along with knockoffs of Dressel 2 through 4.

North African and Eastern Amphorae: Carthage to Crete

In North Africa, pottery had older roots. The style there came from the Phoenician city of Carthage. Phoenician amphorae were easy to spot. Their small handles were attached high up on the body, near the rim. This design carried over into Roman times and marked what’s now called neo-Phoenician amphorae. Tripolitania and parts of northern Tunisia became strong production centers. There, they made types known as Maña C1 and C2, later renamed van der Werff 1, 2, and 3.

Over in the Aegean, Rhodes stood out early on. Amphorae from the island were in use from the 3rd century BCE. They moved a lot of local wine across the Roman world. That type later evolved into what’s called Camulodunum 184, an amphora designed for Rhodian wine exports across the Empire. On the island of Cos, makers turned out their own versions of Dressel 2 through 4. These carried wine from as early as the 4th century BCE all the way into the mid-Imperial period.

Crete joined the wine trade too. Cretan amphorae show up in Mediterranean shipwrecks and trade centers starting in the Augustan era and were still in use in the 3rd century CE.

 

Late Roman Changes: African Dominance and Eastern Influence

By the time the Roman Empire entered its later years, North Africa had taken the lead in amphora production. Two styles became especially common. These were known as African I and African II, and they were in steady use from the 2nd through the late 4th century CE. At the same time, other eastern styles were gaining ground. The Late Roman 4 type, made in Gaza and nearby areas, became a top choice from the 4th century all the way into the 7th.

Meanwhile, amphora production in Italy had nearly disappeared. The change in trade patterns, materials, and demand left local Italian potteries behind as new regions took over. Amphorae from the East and North Africa filled the gap, keeping Rome’s goods flowing through the empire’s long trade routes.

Roman Ceramic Lamps: Everyday Lighting in the Ancient World

Artificial light was normal in daily Roman life. People used it after dark at home, in shops, temples, and bathhouses. The cheapest source of light was the candle, made from tallow or beeswax. But candles don’t survive well in the ground, so archaeologists rarely find them. What they do find in large numbers are clay oil lamps. These were filled with olive oil or other plant-based oils and lit with a small wick. Some lamps were made of metal and looked fancy, with added figures or multiple nozzles, but most were simple, fired clay. These small ceramic lamps were usually cheap and had just one wick and one flame.

Mass Production of Clay Oil Lamps

Roman lamps were made fast and in bulk. Most came from moulds used in busy workshops that pumped out large quantities of the same shapes. A typical lamp had a round central disc, about 4 to 6 centimeters across. This disc included the hole where oil was poured in. It was often decorated with low-relief images. The designs varied a lot. Some showed Roman gods, myths, animals, or scenes from daily life. Others featured gladiator fights, chariot races, or sexual scenes. In later centuries, Christian and Jewish symbols started appearing too, like menorahs on Jewish lamps.

Italy set the trend. The styles that started there often got copied in other provinces. Some copies were exact replicas. Instead of carving a new design, makers would press an existing lamp into clay to form the mould. This shortcut method was called surmoulage. It helped workshops make duplicates quickly, without hiring a skilled sculptor to model each prototype by hand.

Stamped Lamps and Organized Production

Roman lamp makers worked in a system a lot like pottery producers of red-gloss wares such as Arretine or samian. Workshops were organized, used plaster moulds, and sold their lamps across wide areas. Some lamps came stamped with the maker’s name. These marks were usually on the base. One common type called the Firmalampe, or “factory lamp,” often had no decoration but did carry a name stamp. These were especially common in Roman military regions in northwestern provinces during the 2nd century CE.

One well-known lamp maker was Fortis. His name shows up on many lamps, not just in Italy but also in copies from outside his workshop. It’s possible he ran multiple factories in different provinces. Another example is a Gaulish lamp found in London, made by Atimetus. His name is stamped clearly on the bottom of the lamp.

Plastic Lamps and Creative Shapes

Not all lamps were plain. Some were shaped into animals, body parts, or odd little faces. These were known as plastic lamps. The word “plastic” here means formed or molded, not made of plastic like today. These shapes were more playful or symbolic and added a creative touch to basic lighting tools.

Why Roman Lamps Matter to Archaeology

Lamps help archaeologists date a site. The styles, stamps, and designs changed often and spread in patterns that can be tracked. Even small differences tell us when and where a lamp was made. That makes them a key tool for understanding Roman settlements.

In Britain, though, these lamps are found less often than in places like Gaul. One likely reason is that olive oil had to be imported, so it was more expensive in Roman Britain. That made oil lamps less common, or at least harder to afford, in the far northwestern edge of the Empire.

Terracotta Figurines in the Roman Empire: Local Styles with Shared Roots

Unlike Roman pottery, which followed Italian trends, terracotta figurines were shaped more by older regional styles. Italy didn’t set the tone here. Instead, Greek traditions and Eastern influences from places like Egypt took the lead. In the northern provinces, such as Gaul and Germany, there was no local habit of making terracotta figures before Rome arrived. But under Roman rule, new industries popped up. They began crafting molded figurines using fine white pipeclay, filling a gap where no earlier ceramic figures existed.

These small terracotta statues were similar in purpose to bronze figurines, just more affordable. Most were made for religious use. People placed them in temples, household shrines, or inside graves. Some probably ended up as children’s toys, even if that wasn’t the maker’s original intent. Most were cast in molds and made in bulk. Back when they were new, these figures were painted in bold colors. That paint usually faded or disappeared over time, especially after burial.

Regional Styles and Shared Themes

Each part of the Roman Empire developed its own look for these figures. But the subject matter stayed pretty consistent across the regions. Most terracottas showed gods and goddesses, each with symbols linked to their powers. Birds and animals were also common, sometimes tied to specific deities, but not always. Some animal figures may have had no religious meaning at all.

The religious themes often reflected local culture. In Roman Egypt, for example, figures showed gods like Harpocrates, the Roman form of the Egyptian Horus. In Central Gaul and the Rhineland, native Celtic deities showed up in terracotta form. These blended local beliefs with Roman artistic styles, creating a mix that was unique to the region.

A good example is the Celtic mother-goddess. She’s often shown nursing one or two babies, seated in a tall chair made of woven material. This type of high-backed basket chair was common in Gaul and Britain. These figurines were everywhere in Central Gaul. Venus was also a frequent subject in the region. In both the Allier Valley and Cologne, some figurines even carried the names of their makers, stamped right into the clay. These signatures, along with the distinct local styles, show how Roman and native traditions came together to create something new.

Bricks, Tiles, and Architectural Clay

Clay wasn’t just for pots and figurines. It was a major part of Roman construction. Fired clay bricks and tiles, along with concrete, were used across the empire to build homes, baths, forts, and temples. Some parts of the Roman world kept using these materials long after Rome fell, but in other places, they were forgotten for centuries and only rediscovered much later.

Like other Roman ceramic products, bricks and tiles were mass-produced. Many of them were stamped with marks showing who made them or which group ordered them. These marks could point to private manufacturers, city governments, or military units. The stamps help date buildings and link them to specific builders or regions, giving archaeologists another piece of the puzzle when studying Roman architecture.

Roman Bricks and Tiles: Clay Building Blocks of the Empire

Roman bricks weren’t the chunky ones we think of today. They were flat, square, and fairly thin. Builders often called them "tiles" because of their shape. Most followed standard sizes tied to the Roman foot, which was about 11 inches or 280 millimeters. Common sizes ranged from 20 to 58 centimeters square and about 5 to 7 centimeters thick. Even in stone walls, thin layers of these bricks were slipped in horizontally. They helped keep the structure strong and even. But once the walls were finished, plaster or other coverings usually hid the bricks, inside and out.

Roof Tiles Built to Be Seen

Roofing tiles were a different story. These were meant to be seen and had distinct shapes. There were two main types: the tegula and the imbrex. A tegula was flat and broad, with upturned edges on the long sides. The imbrex looked like a short, narrow half-cylinder. The curved imbrices sat over the joints between the flat tegulae, locking together to keep out water. This setup made the classic ridged Roman roof, a style still visible today in places like Italy and southern France. These roofs needed a shallow pitch, around 30 degrees or less. At the ridge, plain tiles capped the peak, and the edges were sometimes finished off with clay finials or decorative end pieces.

Roof Edge Ornaments and Military Markings

Along the roof’s edge, builders often added antefixes. These were vertical pieces placed at the ends of tiles. They came in curved or triangular shapes, usually made of terracotta. Some were just for looks. Others had symbolic decorations meant to bring luck or ward off bad spirits. Military versions often carried the legion’s number and emblem, especially when made near Roman forts. These added a practical and personal touch from the soldiers who helped build them.

Heating with Fired Clay

Romans also used fired clay in their heating systems. The hypocaust, an early type of underfloor heating, depended on it. Floors were raised on short brick columns, called pilae, so warm air from a nearby furnace could move underneath. In bathhouses and heated homes, this system kept rooms warm. Heat also traveled up the walls through box-shaped clay tiles. These wall tiles locked together to form flue systems and sometimes came with geometric or figural patterns, even though they were usually hidden under plaster.

Water Pipes and Drainage

Roman builders also used clay pipes to carry water and waste. These pipes were strong, heat-resistant, and easy to shape. Clay was the material of choice for both fresh water systems and sewage drains across the Empire.

Floors and Mosaics with Crushed and Cut Tile

Flooring was another place Romans used tile, but not in the way we use ceramic tile today. Most Roman floors didn’t use large ceramic slabs. Instead, they used opus signinum, a mix of crushed tile and concrete. When they made mosaic floors, they sometimes cut small square pieces from roof tiles. These tesserae were usually 2 to 3 centimeters for plain edges, and smaller (around 1 centimeter) when red pieces were needed for detailed mosaic pictures.

Campana Reliefs and Decorative Wall Panels

Some Roman buildings had clay wall plaques known as Campana reliefs. These were thin, fired panels with carved images, made to look like marble friezes from fancy temples. They started showing up around 50 BCE and were mostly used in Italy, especially between Tuscany and Campania. This area was once home to the Etruscans, and the reliefs carry that style forward. At first, they were seen on smaller temples, but over time, public and private buildings used them too. Most were 22 to 50 centimeters high and 27 to 48 centimeters wide. Builders arranged them in rows or strips, often showing mythological scenes. But by the mid-2nd century CE, they faded out. Molded stucco and wall painting had become more popular and cheaper to make.

CBM: How Archaeologists Classify Roman Bricks and Tiles

When archaeologists dig up old Roman sites, they find lots of broken bricks and tiles. These fragments don’t always fit into neat categories. So they use the term ceramic building material, or CBM, to group them all together. It covers anything fired from clay that was used in Roman construction, whether it’s a roof tile, a floor remnant, or a chunk of wall paneling.