Ancient Shipwrecks with Chinese Ceramics: Maritime Trade Routes, Ming Porcelain & Southeast Asia Discoveries

1. The Brunei Shipwreck Shook Up What Experts Thought About Ming Porcelain

The Brunei shipwreck isn't just a pile of old wood and clay. It's a big deal. When researchers dug it up, they found something that flipped a long-standing belief about Chinese export ceramics on its head. Along with two other nearby wrecks, the Lena Shoal and Santa Cruz, the Brunei wreck was full of Chinese blue and white porcelain. Not just a little. More than all the earlier shipwrecks put together.

That detail changed everything. For years, people thought blue and white porcelain was a staple of the entire Ming Dynasty. But according to ceramic expert Roxanna Brown, that’s not how it went. She pointed out that these goods only started showing up in real volume around the time of Emperor Hongzhi, who ruled from 1488 to 1505. Before that, blue and white pieces barely made it onto Southeast Asian ships at all. That’s surprising, since most people just assume “Ming” and “blue and white” go hand in hand.

So when I got the chance to see the Brunei Shipwreck Museum and visit Kota Batu, I didn’t think twice. Kota Batu is one of the key archaeological sites in Borneo. It's also where the term "Ming Gap" came from; the name experts gave to this quiet period in ceramic trade between the Yuan and early Ming dynasties.

How the Brunei Wreck Was Found and Why It Matters

Just like Singapore’s famous Belitung shipwreck, the Brunei shipwreck wasn’t discovered on purpose. It was found by accident in 1997 during a routine underwater survey by Elf Petroleum, now known as Total. The team was scanning the sea floor off Brunei’s coast when they stumbled across it. What they found was a nearly whole ship, buried and protected underwater.

Marine archaeologists handled the excavation carefully. They set up a full metal grid across the site. That helped them map the wreck and keep perfect track of where every object came from. This wasn’t some rushed job. Everything was recorded with precision down to the centimeter.

The ship had most likely been headed to Kota Batu, Brunei’s royal port and Islamic capital at the time. Like many Southeast Asian ports, Kota Batu wasn’t right on the sea. Instead, it sat inland, a few miles up the Brunei River. That made it a safe, strategic hub for regional trade.

A Look at What the Ship Was Carrying

Out of the more than 13,000 objects recovered, around ninety percent were ceramics. The bulk of them came from China, made for export. But there were also pieces from Vietnam, Thailand, and Burma. This wasn’t just a shipment from one country. It was a mix, likely packed with the best of what each region could produce.

Besides pottery, the wreck held weapons like cannons and firearms, glass bracelets, game pieces, and metal tools. There were also beads and random other items. A lot of this would’ve been barter goods, meant to be swapped for highly prized local products.

Brunei was known for camphor, a strong-smelling resin used in medicine and preservation. At the time, camphor from Brunei was said to be the best in the world. It was so valuable that it traded at the same rate as silver. Both Chinese and Arab merchants fought to get their hands on it.

And camphor wasn’t the only draw. Southeast Asia’s exports included all kinds of rare and natural materials. Turtle shell, pearls, bird nests, beeswax, rattan, cowrie shells, and betel nuts all played a part. One of the biggest prizes was aromatic agarwood, also called gaharu, which still sells for tens of thousands of dollars per kilo today.

What This Wreck Tells Us About Trade in the 1400s

This shipwreck gives us more than just artifacts. It gives us a clearer picture of what trade looked like between China and Southeast Asia in the late 1400s. Before, most people assumed that Chinese blue and white ceramics had always been shipped out in huge numbers during the Ming period. But that’s not how it worked.

The cargo from the Brunei wreck shows a big change. Right around the time of Emperor Hongzhi, the Chinese really ramped up their ceramic exports. And Southeast Asia was a major destination. This wreck proves it. Not just through a few items, but through thousands of pieces, all meant for trade.

It also reminds us that trade routes didn’t just move finished goods. They were built on raw materials, rare resources, and strong demand on both sides. Brunei and its neighbors weren’t passive buyers. They had valuable items that Chinese merchants wanted just as badly.

The Lena Shoal Shipwreck: A Hidden Trove of Ming Dynasty Trade Goods

In 1997, not long after the Brunei shipwreck was found, another major discovery came to light off the coast of the Philippines. This one was near a reef by Busuanga Island, northeast of Palawan. It's now known as the Lena Shoal shipwreck. Like the Brunei wreck, this was a regional trade ship, not a Chinese junk. It was built using Southeast Asian methods, with tropical hardwood planks and dowels lashed together. The vessel measured around 22 to 25 meters in length.

What set this wreck apart was the cargo. It was packed with Chinese ceramics from the late 1400s to early 1500s, especially blue and white porcelain. Most of the items dated to the reign of Emperor Hongzhi. That timing matched what was found in the Brunei wreck. These two ships confirmed a big spike in Chinese ceramic exports during that period.

Besides the Chinese blue and white wares, the cargo included a few Vietnamese blue and white pieces, a single Sukhothai jarlet, and a huge Martaban storage jar. There were over a hundred large Burmese celadon plates and several brown-glazed Chinese items. These were mixed in with other trade goods like bronze bracelets, bronze cannons, elephant tusks, and glass beads. The Lena Shoal wreck turned out to be a rare and rich collection of late Ming ceramics that had survived the centuries underwater.

The Santa Cruz Shipwreck: Massive Cargo and a Rushed Recovery

The Santa Cruz was the largest of the three shipwrecks tied to the Hongzhi period. It stretched about 25 meters long and is thought to have been built in the Philippines. It was discovered in 2001, about 270 kilometers north of Manila, near Hermana Menor Island.

This wreck came under threat fast. Once word got out, looters started tearing it apart. The situation became so chaotic that archaeologists had no choice but to dig it up during bad weather. They didn’t have time to wait. If they hesitated, everything might’ve been lost.

Luckily, the lower part of the ship was still intact. What they pulled out was stunning. Just like the Brunei and Lena Shoal wrecks, the Santa Cruz ship was loaded with blue and white porcelain. Most of the ceramics were bowls, plates, boxes, tea cups, jarlets, and kendis. Many pieces were still in their original packaging. Experts estimate that about 90 percent of the cargo was Chinese porcelain.

Over 11,500 pieces were cataloged. Almost all were labeled as fine-quality ceramic in excellent condition. Alongside them were stoneware jars, Vietnamese blue and white, Longquan celadon, and some celadon from Thailand’s Sawankhalok kilns. Today, some of those items are on display in the National Museum of the Philippines in Manila, along with highlights from the Lena Shoal find.

The Rise of Chinese Blue and White Porcelain in Asian Maritime Trade

Blue and white porcelain first showed up in China during the Yuan dynasty. But it didn’t really take off until the Ming era. These three shipwrecks, Brunei, Lena Shoal, and Santa Cruz, prove just how fast that change happened.

They also show how strong the maritime trade was between China and the rest of Southeast Asia. The ships weren’t just carrying a few pots and plates. They were moving tons of high-quality porcelain, packed and ready for sale. And most of it was meant for foreign buyers, not Chinese markets.

These wrecks give us hard evidence. They mark the moment when blue and white porcelain started flooding overseas trade routes. Before that, it wasn’t a major export. After Hongzhi’s reign, it was everywhere. The finds confirm what archaeologists and ceramic experts had started to suspect: Chinese export porcelain didn’t define the whole Ming dynasty, but it dominated the back half of it.

The Forgotten Wealth of Ming Ceramics and a Museum Left Behind

What made these shipwrecks more than just sunken wood was the scale of what they were carrying. Beyond porcelain, the Santa Cruz wreck held all kinds of trade goods. There were bronze cannons, bronze bracelets, elephant tusks, and strings of glass beads. Still, the main draw was the ceramics. Experts called the cargo a “remarkable trove” from the Ming Dynasty, and that wasn’t an exaggeration.

The Santa Cruz ship, the largest of the three, measured about 25 meters. It was likely built in the Philippines. It was found in 2001 near Hermana Menor Island, just over 270 kilometers north of Manila. But the wreck was discovered under pressure. Looters had already started stripping it bare. Things were so bad that archaeologists had to step in and dig it out fast, even with storms hitting the area.

They got to it just in time. The lower hull was still intact. And like the Brunei and Lena Shoal ships, this one was packed tight with blue and white porcelain. Most of the pieces were everyday trade items like plates, bowls, cups, boxes, jarlets, and kendis. They made up nearly 90 percent of the original cargo. Some were even still wrapped in the packing they’d been loaded in centuries ago.

In total, more than 11,500 porcelain items were recovered. They weren’t scraps either. Most were whole, clean, and described as high-quality ceramic in excellent condition. Alongside them were jars made from stoneware, Longquan celadon, Thai Sawankhalok celadon, and a few Vietnamese blue and white pieces. Some of these finds are now on display at the National Museum in Manila, along with key items from the Lena Shoal wreck.

Blue and White Porcelain Wasn't Always a Major Export

Even though Chinese blue and white porcelain first appeared under the Yuan dynasty, it didn’t become widespread until the Ming dynasty took hold. And it wasn’t exported in serious volume until late in that period. These three wrecks, Brunei, Lena Shoal, and Santa Cruz, make that point clear. Each one carried thousands of pieces, mostly packed for export to nearby Asian ports. That kind of bulk trade hadn’t shown up in earlier wrecks.

These ships give us hard proof of a turning point in trade. Not just in quantity, but in the kind of products that were in demand across Southeast Asia. Blue and white ceramics weren’t just decorative. They were being shipped out in bulk, bought, sold, and used all over the region.

Brunei’s Forgotten Maritime Legacy

A visit to Brunei’s Maritime Museum and the nearby historic site of Kota Batu reveals a troubling picture. Despite housing one of the most important shipwreck finds in Southeast Asian maritime history, the museum appears neglected. The parking lot is empty. There are no guides, no brochures, no bookstore, and no informational materials for visitors.

The exhibition cases are still intact and labeled, but nothing seems current. The projection room that once played a video about the shipwreck has been closed. Key artifacts are kept behind ropes, with access only granted by request. Photography is not allowed.

Kota Batu, once the seat of Brunei’s first Islamic sultanate, is only minutes away. It was famously recorded by Italian traveler Antonio Pigafetta in 1521 as a bustling trade hub. But today, the site is deserted. Even after multiple visits, not a single visitor or staff member was present.

The Brunei National Museum, which holds additional Southeast Asian export ceramics, has been shut for several years. No reopening date has been announced.

What’s most striking is the lack of support for preserving Brunei’s historical identity. This region once thrived as a center of commerce. Spanish records referred to it as the “Venice of the East,” where merchants from China, Cambodia, Vietnam, Ayutthaya, Patani, and across Southeast Asia gathered to trade. Now, the silence surrounding its rich past suggests that its legacy is quietly fading.

 

2. Yue Ceramics Found in the Cirebon Shipwreck Show How Far Tang-Era Trade Reached

Fishermen Discover a Lost Cargo in the Java Sea

In early 2003, local fishermen working off the coast of Cirebon in northern Java pulled something unexpected from the water. Their nets had caught pieces of old ceramics. What they found came from a wreck about 100 kilometers offshore, resting 56 meters deep in the Java Sea. By April 2004, the first pieces of the wreck’s cargo reached the surface. It would come to be known as the Cirebon cargo.

What set this find apart wasn’t just the number of items, though it was massive. About 200,000 ceramic pieces were recovered. What mattered more was what they were. Around 75 percent of the cargo was made up of Yue ware, or yue yao, a type of high-quality green-glazed stoneware from southern China. Ten percent of those pieces were still intact. That includes ewers with rounded bellies, bowls, incense holders, platters, and even clay animal figurines shaped like deer, birds, and mythical beasts.

Clues Point to a 10th-Century Origin

One of the most useful pieces in the wreck was a bowl. It had a date carved on it: 968. There was also a company seal stamped on the item, reading Xu Ji Shao, which may have been the manufacturer. These clues helped researchers date the shipwreck to sometime in or after the year 968.

At that time, China was going through one of its more chaotic periods. The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ruled the south and central regions from 906 to 960, while the Liao dynasty held the north from 916 to 1125. After the collapse of the Tang Dynasty, the country was fractured. Local regimes took over, especially in the south. Despite the political unrest, the southern regions stayed relatively stable, which helped trade, ceramic production, and shipbuilding grow.

The Wu Yue Kingdom and Its Yue Ware Ceramics

The Yue ceramics in the cargo likely came from the Wu Yue kingdom, one of the Ten Kingdoms active from 907 to 978. This kingdom controlled areas that are now southern Jiangsu and Zhejiang. The Yue kilns there had been firing since the Tang era and became known for producing the first official court wares.

One of the most famous types was mise ware, sometimes called “secret color” ceramics. It held high status in Chinese tea culture. Lu Yu, the famous Tang tea master, ranked Yue ware as the top choice for brewing tea in his Tea Classic, a major work on tea.

These Wu Yue ceramics stood out because of the fine decoration. Many had carved or incised designs, often drawn from Buddhist and Hindu themes. One platter shaped like a lotus leaf had a turtle in the center, a symbol linked to immortality. Other recurring motifs included the makara, a mythic sea creature, and three-clawed dragons.

Buddhist Symbols Woven into the Designs

Buddhist symbolism showed up throughout the cargo. Some of the ceramics were engraved with Chinese characters like gongyang, which means “paying homage” to the Buddha. These weren’t just household items. They were tied to ritual and belief.

The Wu Yue rulers were strong patrons of Buddhism. Their founder, Qian Liu, was known for his religious devotion. His kingdom poured resources into temple construction and mass production of Buddha statues. It’s no surprise that the ceramics they exported carried that spiritual influence.

Northern White Wares Also Found in the Shipwreck

Along with the green Yue ceramics, the ship also carried about 2,500 pieces of northern white ware. These included jars, bowls, and dishes. Experts are still trying to decide if they came from the Ding or Xing kilns, both of which were tied to earlier Tang white stoneware.

These white ceramics were lightly carved with simple but meaningful images. Designs showed birds, phoenixes, tortoises, lotus petals, deer, and makaras. Some pieces featured Chinese symbols like boys playing among floral scrolls, which stood for fertility and the wish for male heirs. Others had cicadas, a common symbol for purity and long life.

This white glaze style laid the groundwork for later porcelain techniques. The finish wasn’t just decorative. It pointed to what was coming next in Chinese ceramic history.

Why the Cirebon Cargo Matters

The Cirebon cargo doesn’t just show what trade looked like in the 10th century. It also tells us who the major players were. The Wu Yue kingdom, rich and independent, used its ceramics not only to trade but also to share its religious and cultural values. These weren’t cheap mass-market items. They were art pieces, sometimes even offerings.

This shipwreck gives us rare proof that Chinese ceramics from both north and south were already moving across the sea in large numbers by the late 900s. It also shows how far Chinese wares traveled and how local kingdoms like Wu Yue helped build that trade network.

After the Tang Collapse, China Turned to the Sea

When the Tang Dynasty lost its grip, overland trade routes across Central Asia became risky. The old Silk Road was no longer reliable. So China switched its focus. It looked to the South China Sea instead. This new route, known as the Nanhai or “Southern Seas,” became a second Silk Road. But this one ran through the sea, not the desert. It linked China to Southeast Asia and beyond.

Long before this change, the Malay world had already been open to maritime trade. Goods and ideas came in waves from both India and China. Java and southern Sumatra, for example, had soaked up Indian influence. They had adopted Hindu-Buddhist beliefs but also welcomed direct trade with China. These places didn’t just trade. They hosted tribute missions, sent envoys, and took part in a cultural exchange that shaped the region.

Srivijaya Controlled the Sea Lanes and Acted as a Hub

From the 600s to the 1100s, the kingdom of Srivijaya dominated the sea routes in Southeast Asia. Based around Palembang in southern Sumatra, it controlled the Malacca and Sunda Straits. These narrow waters were vital chokepoints for ships moving between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea.

To the Chinese, Srivijaya was known as Sanfoqi. It wasn’t just a trade power. It was a center of Buddhist scholarship, too. Pilgrims passed through its ports on their way to India. One of them was the Tang monk Yi Jing. He traveled from China to India between 671 and 695. On the way, he stopped in Srivijaya and wrote a detailed account of what he saw. His work, Records of Buddhist Practices from the South Seas, shows how important the region had become.

China’s interest in Buddhism kept growing during this time. So did the trade in religious items. Buddhist icons, texts, and tools started moving across the water. Srivijaya became a trusted trading partner. It also received tribute from China, showing how tight the connection had become.

The Cirebon Cargo Shows Just How Wide Trade Had Spread

The shipwreck found off Cirebon wasn’t just carrying Chinese ceramics. It held a mix of different items, some local, some foreign. Alongside the hundreds of thousands of ceramic pieces, there were coins, gold, glassware, lacquer objects, and metalwork. Chinese copper coins from the Nan Han kingdom (917 to 971) were also found. These coins point to trade with what is now Guangdong and Guangxi, two regions along China’s southern coast.

At the time, southern Chinese states like Nan Han and Min (in modern Fujian) had their own currency systems. These were based mainly on copper and lead. China’s money system was evolving fast. More farmland, better crops, and growing trade had sparked a boom in coin minting. That same surge helped power China’s push into maritime trade.

By the 900s, China wasn’t just trading with Southeast Asia. Chinese ships were sailing through the Indian Ocean to the Persian Gulf. They reached Arab ports like Siraf and Basra, and also Suhar on the Gulf of Oman. These routes brought in goods, ideas, and people from across the Islamic world.

Imported Glass Reveals Arab and Persian Connections

About ten percent of the Cirebon cargo was made up of glass, gold, and gemstones. Among the wreckage were about 2,000 glass shards. Forty vessels survived intact. These included light, opaque glass pieces in green, turquoise, and blue. The chemical makeup of the glass matched styles seen in Persia and Syria during the Abbasid period, which lasted from the mid-700s to the 1200s.

Some of the Syrian green glass looked a lot like emeralds. That wasn’t a coincidence. Craftsmen at the time were known to imitate gemstone colors for ritual or decorative use. These vessels may have served in religious ceremonies, either in temples or private homes. Their presence on a Chinese trade ship shows just how far and deep the network had grown.

The Cirebon cargo proves that by the 10th century, Chinese maritime trade was global. Goods from as far as the Arab world were making their way to Southeast Asia by ship. This wasn’t just regional exchange. It was a full-blown international trade system, with China at the center and ports across Asia and the Middle East tied into it.

Arabic Inscriptions and Islamic Influence in the Cirebon Wreck

The Cirebon shipwreck carried a mixed cargo, and some of the finds clearly showed Islamic influence. A few items had Arabic inscriptions carved right into them. One stone mold was etched with “Allahu Akbar,” meaning “The One and Only God is Great.”

Another had “Allah Malik Wahid Qahhar,” which translates to “The One and Only Dominator.” These weren’t random. After the mid-7th century, Arabic script began showing up in religious texts. By the 8th century, Arab conquest in Sind pushed Islamic culture closer to India. By the 10th century, Arabic had become the main language across much of the Arab-Islamic world. But in Southeast Asia, it was Muslim traders crossing the seas who introduced Islam to the Malay archipelago.

Gold Weapons, Jewelry, and Religious Artifacts Found in the Wreck

Among the Cirebon cargo were gold objects that suggest ties to both Islamic and Hindu-Buddhist cultures. Two gold-plated daggers were covered in Arabic or Sunni-style inscriptions, which could point to Arab or Indian origins. There was also gold jewelry: a belt, rings, and earrings, all showing Indian and Hindu-Buddhist designs. Some were set with rubies, likely from Ceylon, along with lapis lazuli and other stones. One piece stood out: a gold-plated object inscribed in Javanese, thought to be an old amulet with Buddhist mantras.

Ship Details and What the Construction Tells Us

The excavation was finished in October 2005. The ship was roughly 30 meters long, with a 24-meter keel and a 12-meter width. It was carrying between 200 and 300 tons of cargo when it sank. About one-third of the hull was still intact, enough to study how it was built. The ship’s design pointed to a Southeast Asian build. The frame was made using dowels and lugs, a method known as the “lashed lug” technique. This was common across the region, especially in Austronesian and Srivijayan shipbuilding. Builders used small lugs sticking out of wooden planks, drilled holes through them, and tied the pieces together with fiber or cord, then added wooden pegs for strength.

Srivijaya as a Trading Power and the Route the Ship Might Have Taken

Records from the 10th century describe Srivijaya as a major seafaring kingdom in the Malay archipelago. Arab, Indian, and Chinese texts talk about kunlun ships, vessels run by people from the Nanhai region, including Cham, Khmer, Malays, Srivijayans, and Indian traders. Many of these merchants sailed in lashed-lug ships like the one found in Cirebon.

The wreck’s position in the Java Sea shows the ship was likely headed toward what is now Semarang, on the northern coast of Java. Historians believe the ship may have started in the western Indian Ocean, stopping at Srivijaya as an intermediate port. Part of the cargo, like Thai or Sumatran water jars called kendi, points to a Southeast Asian connection. But a large portion of the cargo was Chinese ceramics, which suggests the ship may have visited China too. Back then, the main Chinese ports were Quanzhou, Minzhou (now Ningbo), and Guangzhou. Quanzhou, located along the Fujian coast, was a key port in China’s trade with South and Southeast Asia. Another possible route would have taken the ship from Guangzhou through the South China Sea to Champa, Tumasek (now Singapore), and then on to Srivijaya.

Religious Cargo and Cultural Blending Onboard

The rest of the cargo was mostly bronze items used in religious ceremonies. There were Chinese bronze mirrors with I Ching symbols, a three-legged stand for holding water pots, a lamp with a figure riding an elephant, candleholders, and Buddhist bells and statues. These came from different places such as India, Srivijaya, maybe even Java. Many of them were likely meant for temples across Southeast Asia.

It’s possible that some of this cargo was being sent as tribute, maybe between Java and the Wu Yue Kingdom in China. That kingdom’s rulers were Buddhist, and the religious items with Hindu-Buddhist symbols may have played a role in diplomatic or spiritual exchanges. One item, a chicken-shaped ewer with a handle shaped like a naga serpent, had a Chinese inscription that said “peace under heaven.”

Back in Java, major religious sites like Borobudur and Prambanan had already been built centuries earlier. Those places may have been the intended destination for some of these items. Other finds, like cooking tools and ceremonial gear, showed elements from Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic traditions. That mix hints that the ship’s crew was just as diverse - people of different backgrounds and beliefs, all sharing the same journey.

 

3. A 10th Century Shipwreck in the Java Sea Uncovers Rare Ceramic Trade Route

Discovery Starts with a Fisherman’s Catch

In 2007, a group of fishermen casting their nets in the Java Sea pulled up something unusual. Stuck in one of the nets was a small, overgrown jarlet. Instead of tossing it aside, they passed it along to friends on shore, who then reached out to an Indonesian salvage team, PT Nautik Recovery Asia. What followed was a major underwater discovery: a shipwreck loaded with ceramics buried under mud and sand about 55 meters below the surface.

Deep Dive, Tough Conditions, Careful Work

By mid-2008, the recovery company began official excavation, having secured all the needed permits. The work was difficult from the start. The site was deep. Divers could only stay at the bottom for around 25 minutes at a time. On top of that, the water was murky. Visibility was extremely poor, which made precise digging almost impossible.

Despite these problems, the team followed strict archaeological methods. They first mapped the site with a full bathymetric scan. Then they set up a 2-by-2 meter grid over the wreck. Each artifact's exact spot was recorded within this grid. Every object was measured and described in a custom-built database. All of this data will be used to build a full digital model of the wreck and its cargo.

Cargo Points to Java, Not the Straits of Malacca

Looking at the wreck's location and what it carried, experts believe the ship was headed for the island of Java. The cargo included ceramics and other goods from China, India, and the Middle East. That combination of items tells us something. If the ship had been headed toward the Straits of Malacca, it wouldn't make sense for it to carry goods from those same regions. That area was already filled with ports trading in Chinese and Indian goods. So this shipment was probably bound for Java directly.

Coins and Ceramics Place the Ship in the 10th Century

Several items on board help date the ship. Among them were old Chinese coins. One set was Kai Yuan Tong Bao cash coins, minted in the Kingdom of Min in Fujian between 916 and 946. Another was a rare Qian Heng Zhong Bao coin from Nánhàn, a short-lived kingdom near today’s Guangzhou that existed between 917 and 971.

The ceramics themselves also offer clues. Their shapes and glazes match pottery styles from the time between the Tang and Song dynasties, a chaotic era in China known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. This puts the ship and its cargo somewhere squarely in the 10th century.

Why This Find Matters for Ceramic Trade History

We already know Chinese ceramics from this period have been found along coasts of the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia. But the details of that trade still aren’t fully clear. What exactly was being produced? Who was buying it? How far did it travel? These are questions that scholars are still working on. This wreck might help answer some of them.

Because of the depth, location, and condition of the cargo, this find could offer fresh insights into how ceramics moved across Asia in the 900s. The items are well-preserved, and the data is being logged in full. Once everything is analyzed, this site might change how we understand early maritime trade between China and the islands of Southeast Asia.

Religion and Trade Reshape Early Java

By the 7th century CE, central Java was already home to a growing civilization. Settlements had taken root in the fertile plains around the island’s central volcanoes. Over time, these communities started building Hindu and Buddhist temples. The result was a wave of monumental architecture in the 8th and 9th centuries. This period gave rise to sites like Ratu Boko, Prambanan, and Borobudur.

Hinduism and Buddhism didn’t arrive on their own. They came with traders. Java’s jungles and coastal waters had long drawn merchants from across Asia, thanks to its supply of rare and valuable goods. Spices, resins, woods, and exotic animal products were all in high demand. Indian merchants brought their beliefs along with their cargo. Trade routes helped spread these new religions, which were quickly adopted by local leaders.

Once these beliefs took hold, they started to influence power. Kings and nobles used religion to show authority. They built temples and sponsored religious events to show off their status. That show of power required wealth. And to get wealth, they needed more trade. The cycle fed itself. Religion boosted power. Power demanded trade. Trade brought more influence. Over time, Java became a key part of wider Indian Ocean trade networks.

A Sudden Move East Under King Sindok

But even as Java thrived, big changes were coming. Around the year 925, something major happened. King Sindok, the ruler of Java, moved the capital east. This was a sharp turn. Just a few decades earlier, his predecessors had finished building some of Java’s most iconic temples in the center of the island. Now, that entire heartland was being left behind.

Historians have debated why. Some think natural disasters played a role. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or disease may have pushed people to leave. Others suggest political or economic reasons. Moving east meant better access to seaports. These ports were the link to the Moluccas (the famous Spice Islands), which had some of the most valuable goods in the world. The eastern coast gave Sindok a stronger position to control trade and expand his reach.

A Time of Culture, But Few Names Survive

Even though this era saw cultural progress, we know very little about the rulers who followed Sindok. He founded the Isana Dynasty, but almost nothing remains from their reign. We don’t have temple complexes tied to these kings. We don’t even have their full names. In fact, one of the only records we have is an inscription written in 1066, long after the dynasty ended.

Despite the silence in local sources, foreign records offer a small glimpse. Chinese documents from the Song Dynasty mention a Javanese ambassador visiting China in 992. He told the court that Java and Srivijaya were at war. That was big news. Srivijaya, based in Sumatra, had been a dominant sea power for centuries. If Java was now openly hostile to it, that marked a serious change in regional politics. So serious, in fact, that a Sumatran envoy who had just returned home had to go back to China two years later. He asked the Song emperor to help mediate peace between the two rivals.

Java Joins the Bigger Picture of Asian Trade

All of this points to one thing: by the late 10th century, Java was no longer a quiet island in the middle of the ocean. It was a rising power, shaped by trade, culture, and conflict. Religion brought in ideas. Trade brought in wealth. And rivalry brought in risk. The move east wasn’t just a response to disaster. It was a step toward deeper control of the seas and the growing trade that flowed through them.

Java’s Imports and the Value of Asian Trade Ceramics

Chinese records from later centuries list the kinds of goods foreign traders brought to Java. These included gold and silver of different grades, gold and silver vessels, fine silk, black damasks, herbs like ssï-chüan-kung used for malaria, and other items like orris root, cinnabar, alum, copperas, borax, arsenic, lacquerware, iron tripods, and green and white porcelain.

Among those imports, high-fired ceramics from China stood out. They were top-tier technology at the time, like phones or electronics today. These porcelain goods were prized across Asia and beyond. In places like Southeast Asia, Iraq, and the Ottoman Empire, these ceramics were strong, long-lasting, and beautiful. They were a step above the local low-fired pottery and looked exotic to most buyers.

Everyone wanted them. Rulers collected them to show power and wealth. In Borneo, village chiefs used them for water, wine, or even to hold the bones of their ancestors. They were practical and meaningful. But more than that, they were trade gold. You could swap ceramics for rice, cloth, pearls, spices, rare foods, or precious metals like gold and silver.

Ceramics made perfect sense as a bulk trade item. They stacked well, traveled safely by sea, and always found a buyer. Java was one of the best places for this kind of trade. As a developed island market, it had constant demand. Plus, it lacked native metal resources. That meant metals, both raw and crafted, had to be brought in from elsewhere. Tools, weapons, and even simple metal pieces were major imports. If someone wanted to show off wealth or power, sea trade gave them access to all kinds of rare and flashy goods.

Early Clues from the Karawang Wreck

The Karawang shipwreck supports this picture. The first things pulled from the site matched the pattern: a mix of trade ceramics, metal ingots, and tools, including the first tripod feet ever found underwater in this region. There were also rare luxury items. Pieces of perfume bottles, detailed Chinese mirrors, crystal beads, and carved items made from ivory and horn showed up. These weren’t everyday items. They were status goods, meant to impress.

This wreck isn't just valuable for the pieces themselves. It’s a window into how Java’s economy worked in the 10th century. It tells us what people bought, what they valued, and how much influence outside trade had on daily life.

Java and the Trade Routes Between East and West

Java wasn’t just a rich island with fancy imports. It sat on one of the busiest sea routes in the world. Ancient texts like Ptolemy’s Iabadiou and the Mahabharata’s Yavadvipa probably referred to Java, but the island was part of something much bigger. It was tied into the main sea path between China and the West, which passed through the Straits of Malacca.

This route shows up in many early names. The Sanskrit Suvarnadvipa means “Island of Gold.” Roman maps had places called Chryse and Argyre, the “Lands of Gold and Silver.” Greek geographers called it the “Golden Chersonese.” These names weren’t random. They pointed to the trade-rich zone linking East and West.

By the 5th century CE, ships were already sailing this lane, carrying traders, priests, and cargo. By the 6th century, Chinese records start to mention official visits from places along this route. Trade was organized, growing, and full of diplomatic ties.

In the 7th century, one major power rose to control this flow: Śrīvijaya. This maritime kingdom started near the lower part of the Musi River and expanded fast. It took control of ports and strongholds on both the Sumatran and Malayan sides of the strait. Śrīvijaya turned into the gatekeeper of the sea, keeping watch over one of the most important maritime trade paths in history.

Śrīvijaya: A Maritime Power Built on Trade and Navigation

Most of what we know about Śrīvijaya’s political history comes from a few stone inscriptions in Old Malay and scattered notes in Chinese, Indian, and Arab texts. It’s still unclear if Śrīvijaya was a single kingdom, a ruling dynasty, or a network of coastal trading ports. Historians don’t even agree on where the main capital was located.

Still, some things are certain. By the 9th century, Śrīvijaya had sent official envoys to the imperial courts of China and had established Buddhist monasteries in India. These actions show how deeply it was tied to the biggest economies of the time: China, India, and the Arab-Persian world.

To Arab and Persian traders, Śrīvijaya was known as the kingdom ruled by the Maharaja. This included the islands of Zābag, like Kalah and Sribuza, along with many others spread across the sea near China. These lands were so vast that, according to their accounts, it would take more than two years to sail to all of them, even in a fast ship. Śrīvijaya's ruler was said to own more perfumes and spices than any other king. Camphor, sandalwood, cloves, nutmeg, cubeb, cardamom, and aloes all came from this region. Trade, in their view, was the source of Śrīvijaya’s real strength.

One Persian sailor named Buzurg quoted a merchant who once counted 800 money changers in just one part of the marketplace. And that didn’t even include the other markets. This wasn’t a backwater port. It was a full-blown economic center, tightly woven into global trade.

But trade alone didn’t explain Śrīvijaya’s reach. Navigation mattered even more. In 1154, the geographer Al-Idrisi wrote that merchants from the Maharaja’s lands sailed to Madagascar and the eastern coast of Africa. They were welcomed there and did regular business. The traders from Zabag knew the language of the locals and brought back goods across the sea. He also noted that African iron, a type favored by Indian blacksmiths, was regularly shipped to India by vessels from Zabag. This shows that Śrīvijaya wasn’t just a trading hub. It also had the ships, sailors, and know-how to move goods across long distances.

Just like Java, the political record of Śrīvijaya in the 10th century is still unclear. No major local records survived. The only dated political note is a report of war with Java in the year 992. The Chinese texts mainly mention when missions arrived or left. The Arab and Persian sources are mostly stories and travel notes, not hard facts.

But what is clear is this: Śrīvijaya’s strength came from its location. It sat at the crossing point of two major sea routes: one connecting China and the Far East, the other stretching through the Indian Ocean to the West. That prime spot turned it into a key player in early global trade.

The cargo from the Karawang shipwreck supports this. Along with a large amount of Chinese ceramics, the wreck also had pieces of Middle Eastern glassware. That combo shows the ship had docked at a port where goods from both China and the western Indian Ocean were being sold. A port like that would only be found in a major hub like Śrīvijaya.

This fits with what we know about the region’s control over sea travel. Śrīvijaya had the ships and sea skills. Java didn’t. Even when Java sent ambassadors to the Chinese court in 992, they had to go on ships owned by a Chinese trader. That points to Śrīvijaya, not Java, as the more advanced naval power at the time.

Old Wrecks in the Java Sea Offer Rare Clues About 10th Century Maritime Trade

Before the Karawang shipwreck was found, only two other wrecks from the same era had been carefully excavated in the Java Sea. These were the Intan wreck and the Nan Han, also known as the Cirebon wreck. Both were built using the Western Austronesian shipbuilding method and carried similar types of cargo. That matters because it tells us something about how trade worked between Java and Śrīvijaya in the 900s CE.

If we examine the cargo and hull remains from Karawang closely, it could help confirm or challenge what we learned from the earlier wrecks. One major idea is that the region's small population limited how much trade could happen. That would explain why only two or three large ships like the Intan or Cirebon likely sailed between Śrīvijaya and Java each year. Those few trips would’ve been packed with both people and goods. For most merchants and travelers, these rare voyages were their only real shot at crossing the sea.

So these ships weren’t just transport. They were like floating warehouses. They carried bulky goods like metal, textiles, and pottery, but they also held smaller luxury items. These were probably high-end products aimed at wealthy buyers in royal courts and religious centers. Things like rare spices, exotic ornaments, and imported artifacts would have been tucked in among the heavier freight.

The Karawang wreck might help confirm if this kind of shipping pattern was common. It could also show us whether trade routes were more limited or more flexible than we thought.

The Five Dynasties Era Ceramics Tell a Bigger Story Than Just Art Style

The pottery found in these wrecks isn’t just about looks. It tells a deeper story. Ceramics from the Five Dynasties period, which came after the Tang Dynasty collapsed, often look plain or even austere. That was probably on purpose. People at the time were reacting to the Tang era, which many saw as overly indulgent and corrupt. The Tang had ended in chaos and brutal civil wars, and that left a strong mark on the art and culture that followed.

During the Five Dynasties period, Northern China was a war zone. Different warlords fought for control of what was left of the Tang Empire. Meanwhile, the south was more peaceful and stable. Refugees from the north fled there, and that started to shape southern China into something more connected to the central Chinese culture. Areas that had been only loosely tied to the empire became more fully part of it.

All those wars drained resources fast. Metal was in short supply, especially in the north. Copper had always been the base metal for Chinese coins, but now, warlords started taking it from churches, homes, and businesses to fund their armies. Some even began making coins out of iron, tin, or lead instead. You can still find some of these strange coins from the Min and Nan Han kingdoms today.

With coinage metals running low, ceramic exports became even more important. Chinese pottery had already been popular in the Indian Ocean world during the Tang. But during the Five Dynasties, exporting ceramics turned into a major source of income. These goods helped pay for military campaigns and the lavish lifestyles of warlords trying to build their own courts.

Southern China's Ceramic Trade Grew Fast in the 10th Century

By the 10th century, southern China had already been leaning on overseas trade for centuries. That wasn’t new. In fact, it was foreign trade that pushed the Han Dynasty to take control of southern China in the first place. They knew it was a reliable source of income.

What was new in the 900s was the arrival of migrants. After political unrest swept the north, refugees moved south, bringing labor, knowledge, and skills with them. That fresh mix of people helped kick off new industries. Cities like Hangzhou, Zhangzhou, and Guangzhou turned into trade hubs.

Zhejiang province had a long tradition of stoneware production, going back to the earliest high-fired green-glazed ceramics. During the Five Dynasties period, that tradition hit its peak. At the same time, smaller coastal kingdoms like Min and Nánhàn, both in southern China, built up their own ceramic production. These were the places where many of the coins found with ceramic cargoes in shipwrecks originated. The Southern Han kingdom, also called Nánhàn, remains poorly documented, but foreign sources from the time recognized it as important. Arabic and Persian writers even called it the seat of the "Baghbur," or ruler of China, and referred to its capital as "Great China."

So even though the Tang Dynasty was fading and China as a whole was unstable, the southern ports stayed busy. International trade didn’t stop. If anything, it picked up speed.

Min Kingdom Ports Were Full of Activity

While Canton (Guangzhou) was still the leading port, Quanzhou, located in the Min Kingdom, saw serious growth. Quanzhou thrived thanks to overseas trade with other countries around the South China Sea and beyond. Even in 904, near the end of the Tang Dynasty, Quanzhou was active. When the Śrīvijaya kingdom sent its final embassy to the Tang court, the Min ruler welcomed the ship at one of his ports and called on foreign merchants to trade there.

Wang Yen-Pin, the nephew of Min’s first independent ruler, ran Quanzhou until early 921. During his time in charge, the city became wealthy. His administration relied heavily on foreign trade, mostly from merchants arriving by sea. They were known in Chinese sources as the "Southern Outlanders," and they were a key part of the ceramic trade that passed through places like the Straits of Malacca.

So it’s likely the ports linked to the rulers who minted the coins found in the Karawang wreck were regular stops for foreign merchants. These same traders moved the goods that would end up on ships like the ones uncovered in Indonesia.

Ceramics Were Traded, But Not Yet Valued as Gifts

Even though Chinese records from this period mention embassies and foreign envoys, they rarely talk about ceramics. Ceramics weren’t yet seen as luxury gifts. They didn’t hold that kind of value. They were useful, profitable, but not worth bragging about in official histories.

Unfortunately, almost all records from the southern kingdoms are gone. The local historians didn’t leave behind books or reports. One reason is that when the Song Dynasty started rising, many southern scholars burned their own drafts. They may have done this under pressure from the new empire, or maybe for other reasons, but either way, the written history of this time is mostly lost.

What the Karawang Wreck Reveals About Ceramic Production

Among the nearly 15,000 ceramic items found so far, not one has a potter’s mark. There are no kuan marks that might link them to a specific kiln. That makes it hard to say exactly where the pieces came from. Still, by analyzing the clay and glaze, researchers should eventually be able to figure out where they were made.

Most of the ceramics were high-fired stoneware, especially plates and bowls covered in a thin green-grey celadon glaze. A few had a slight blue tint. Mixed in with them were about two dozen intact white pre-porcelain pieces. It’s not clear if all the green-glazed wares came from the same kiln. The quality and style vary enough to suggest different potters were involved, some more skilled than others.

So far, about two-thirds of the ceramic pieces can be sorted into around twenty types of bowls and plates. Of the rest, roughly half are jars or jarlets, along with some ewers, lids, and covers. A small number were vases and kendi. These numbers line up closely with what’s been found in other similar wrecks, like the Cirebon cargo linked to the Nánhàn kingdom.

This match suggests the Karawang and Cirebon cargoes reflect what Java’s markets were looking for in the 10th century. But the differences in glaze and form also show that the pieces didn’t come from one place. They likely came from different workshops across southern China. That helps explain how the ceramic trade expanded and got more complex. This early trade paved the way for the much larger ceramic industry that took off under the Northern Song, and even more so during the Southern Song period.

How the Karawang Shipwreck Is Helping Us Understand 10th-Century Ceramic Trade

Studying a shipwreck is not like digging through ruins on land. Especially when it comes to trade ceramics, the volume is just too large to treat each piece as a separate artifact. There are thousands. Trying to look at them one by one doesn’t work. What researchers need is a way to sort and group the ceramics by type, shape, and style. That’s the only way to make sense of what they’re looking at.

To make that possible, the salvage company behind the Karawang excavation brought in Indonesia’s Agency for Marine and Fisheries Research. Their job was to build a custom database that could handle detailed records of the ceramic finds. The idea was to collect the right kind of data so it could be processed by computer and analyzed in bulk.

So far, the system holds data on about 6,500 complete ceramic items, each one tagged with its own ID. It also includes around 28,000 ceramic shards. These numbers come from the first phase of the recovery effort, and together they make up about 40 percent of the ship’s full cargo.

Right now, measurements are only being taken from the whole, undamaged pieces. A bowl might get about 10 different measurements. A ewer might get up to 17. In addition to size, each piece is also logged based on shape, rim type, base style, and other physical features. These form-based details help researchers sort the ceramics into categories for analysis.

The actual data collection is being handled by senior archaeology students from Universitas Indonesia in Jakarta. It's the top university in the country and has strong ties to this kind of academic fieldwork.

Because the work is still in progress, it’s too early to make any final judgments. But the early results already show that the computer-based approach works. It’s proving to be a solid method for breaking down large ceramic collections into useful groups. That’s critical when you’re dealing with thousands of pieces from a single wreck.

In the end, a full analysis of the Karawang cargo, which is one of the most complete ceramic trade shipments ever found, could teach us things we’ve never known about how pottery was made, sold, and used in the 10th century. It gives us a close look at how ceramics moved through markets, who wanted what, and what kinds of products were being made for export. For a time in Asian history that still isn’t well understood, that’s rare. This one shipwreck might answer a lot of questions about the early international ceramic trade.