Ancient Chinese Porcelain and Celadon: History, Types, Techniques, and Global Influence

Understanding Early Chinese Celadons

Chinese green-glazed ceramics, often called celadons in English, have a deep history. These high-fired wares were made in many different styles, across countless kilns spread through several provinces in ancient China. The variety is huge. Celadons weren’t just popular for their look. They also held cultural and symbolic meaning across time.

How Celadons Started in Ancient China

The earliest versions of celadon, known as proto-porcelain, showed up during the Shang Dynasty, around the 16th century BCE. These first green-glazed wares came in different shades. They were the starting point for what would later become true celadon.

By the Eastern Han Dynasty, from 25 to 220 CE, green-glazed ceramics had evolved into more refined forms. These were being made in places like Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and Hunan. Among all the kiln systems, the Yue and Wuzhou kilns stood out. They led the development of early celadon. As of the late 1990s, archaeologists had found over 700 Yue kiln sites dating from the Eastern Han through to the Song Dynasty, which ended in 1279. They also discovered more than 500 Wuzhou kilns that operated from the Eastern Han through the Yuan Dynasty, which lasted until 1368.

The Differences Between Yue and Wuzhou Celadons

Yue and Wuzhou celadons weren’t the same. They looked different and were made for different reasons. They also used different techniques. One major distinction was whether or not they used a white slip, which is a layer of light-colored clay, beneath the glaze.

Between the Three Kingdoms period, which ran from 220 to 265, and the Jin Dynasty that followed, the Yue kilns focused on creating models of storage containers and farm equipment. These included items like granaries, mills, and grindstones. They were made as burial goods, reflecting the traditions of the time. Wuzhou kilns didn’t usually make these.

Instead, the Wuzhou kilns were producing things like tripod jars, cylindrical jars, small-mouthed jars, brush holders, pig pens with slanted roofs, and ewers that had spouts shaped like sheep heads. These forms were rare in Yue kiln production during that same era.

Wuzhou’s Use of White Slip

During the Six Dynasties period, which lasted from 220 to 580, Wuzhou celadons had a white layer between the clay body and the green glaze. Later, from the end of the Western Jin to the Tang Dynasty, which lasted from 618 to 906, Wuzhou potters kept using a white slip under the glaze. You can often see this white layer through cracks in the glaze, where it shows up as pale lines or flecks. Yue celadons didn’t use this technique at all.

What Yue and Wuzhou Celadons Had in Common

Despite their differences, the two styles had some things in common, especially in decoration. During the Three Kingdoms period, both Yue and Wuzhou kilns made pieces with carved lines circling the bodies. They also added clay appliqués shaped like animal faces or Buddhist figures.

From the end of the Three Kingdoms into the Western Jin, both styles started using designs like cross-hatching and rows of round dots, often called “pearl” bands.

By the Eastern Jin period, from 317 to 420, potters from both kiln systems were decorating their celadons with brown spots. These simple details helped define the look of early Chinese ceramics during that time.

Why Early Celadon Still Matters

Early Chinese celadons weren’t just art. They were part of life, death, and belief. Whether from Yue or Wuzhou, each piece tells a story about the region it came from, the people who used it, and the time it was made. These early green-glazed wares laid the foundation for centuries of ceramic art in China and across East Asia. Today, they’re still studied, collected, and admired for their quiet beauty and lasting influence.

The Discovery of Mi Se Celadons at Famen Pagoda

In 1988, an underground chamber beneath the Famen Pagoda in Fufeng, Shanxi Province, was uncovered. Inside, archaeologists found 14 pieces of rare celadon called mi se, which means "secret color." A stone tablet in the chamber confirmed their name. These mi se wares had a soft green glaze, said to resemble the color of lake water.

They were created during the final years of the Tang Dynasty through the early Northern Song, between the late 9th century and early 12th century. The Wuyue kingdom, a weak state led by the Qian family, made these ceramics as tribute gifts to more powerful regions. Although small in number, mi se wares hold major historical and artistic value.

Guan Celadons of the Song Courts

Guan celadons came next. These were official court wares made during the Northern Song and Southern Song dynasties, from the 10th to the 13th century. The most important kilns for Southern Song Guan wares were located at Jiaotanxia, just outside Hangzhou. This was where the Southern Song court was based.

There were two main types of Jiaotanxia celadons. One had a thin clay body with a thin glaze. The other had a thin body too, but with a much thicker glaze. By the end of the 1100s, some pieces in the second group had up to five layers of green glaze. Each layer was applied and fired separately, which gave the surface a soft depth. The base clay often fired to a dark gray or brown color, known as the "iron foot."

The thinner, more yellowish celadons usually formed fine crackles. The thicker, greener ones had smoother surfaces with fewer cracks.

Longquan Celadons and Their Rise

Longquan celadons gained wide fame, especially across Southeast Asia. Production started during the Three Kingdoms period and reached a high point in the middle of the Southern Song. Around that time, Longquan potters began to copy techniques from the Jiaotanxia kilns, adding rich, layered glazes and shapes modeled after imperial Guan pieces.

There were two types of Longquan celadon. One had thick glaze over white clay. The other had thick glaze over dark clay, but this second type was much less common.

The best-known Longquan glazes were fen qing, meaning powder green, and mei qing, meaning plum green, after the soft green color of unripened plums. After the Yuan Dynasty, the glaze turned thinner, often turning to a yellowish or grey-green tint. Longquan ware declined during the Ming and was no longer made by the time the Qing took power.

Yaozhou Celadons and Carved Elegance

Yaozhou celadons began in the Tang period but became known for their quality during the Five Dynasties and Song. These green-glazed ceramics were also made for the Song courts. Yaozhou pieces stood out for their carefully carved designs and soft, jade-like finish.

Their decoration was often done by hand, with incised or molded patterns pressed into the clay before glazing. The glaze would then pool in the carved areas, giving the designs more depth and contrast.

Ou Celadons and the Switch to Export Wares

More than 200 Ou kilns have been found, mostly in the lower hills along the Oujiang and Feiyunjiang rivers in Zhejiang. Ou celadons started during the Eastern Han. Their glaze was a light green, often called piao green. The clay underneath was either white or pale gray.

Early Ou wares were quite similar to Yue celadons in shape and glaze. But during the Song, their quality dropped. The pieces became rougher and less refined. In response to changing demand, Ou kilns began copying the styles of Longquan celadons and the greenish-white yingqing wares made at Jingdezhen. This transformation helped them stay in the market for both local use and export sales during the late Northern Song and beyond.

 

China’s Global Obsession With Porcelain, 800 to 1900

If any culture discovered porcelain before China, no proof has survived. And the truth is, porcelain wasn’t really “invented” overnight. It came from centuries of trial and error. Chinese potters slowly developed it by mixing two main ingredients: white clay called kaolin and a type of rock called dunzi or porcelain stone. The pieces were then fired in kilns using a method called reduction, which limits oxygen to control the glaze and finish.

That knowledge didn’t come easily. It was shaped by thousands of years of working with different clays, glazes, and kiln techniques to meet the high standards of the imperial court. Today, if you walk through the Asian Civilisations Museum’s exhibition on Chinese porcelain, you’ll see that story unfold. From the earliest pieces inspired by jade, to the bold forms and glazes of later dynasties, it’s a full picture of one of China’s most important cultural exports.

The Birth of Celadon and the Longquan Tradition

Chinese potters wanted to create wares that looked like jade. That led to the first green-glazed ceramics, made from iron-rich clays. This is where celadon began. The best examples came from the Longquan kilns in Zhejiang, a southern province along the coast.

Longquan celadons stood out not for flashy decoration, but for subtlety. They often featured simple molded reliefs, like twin fish or lotus petals. These gentle forms didn’t compete with the glaze. Instead, they let the smooth, soft green coating take center stage. These celadons became famous not just in China, but across Asia and beyond.

The Rise of Blue and White in the Yuan Dynasty

While southern potters were perfecting green celadons, northern potters during the Yuan Dynasty turned toward something new: a pure white background for cobalt blue designs. This marked the beginning of blue-and-white porcelain, which would later become one of China’s most iconic ceramic styles.

Before this, some of the best white wares came from the Xing and Ding kilns in Hebei Province. Both started in the early 7th century, during the Tang Dynasty. Xing pieces were made from a fine kaolin clay that sat right between stoneware and true porcelain. This made them feel refined but strong.

To enhance the whiteness, potters brushed on a white slip over the surface before firing. This gave the vessels a soft, smooth finish. Poets called them “white as silver and snow.”

Ding Kilns and the Official Court Wares

About two centuries later, the Ding kilns started to gain influence. Located in Xingzhou, also in Hebei, the Ding potters pushed the boundaries of white porcelain. They were known for making thin, elegant pieces. Some were marked with the character 官 (guan), showing that they were made for official use by the imperial court.

To create even thinner rims that wouldn’t bend in the high heat of the kiln, Ding potters began to flip their pieces upside down before firing. But this method had a trade-off. Since the rim sat on the kiln shelf, they had to scrape the glaze off the top edge. That left bare rims, a unique feature of many Ding wares.

Why Chinese Porcelain Took Over the World

From the soft green celadons of Longquan to the fine white glazes of the north, Chinese porcelain changed how the world saw ceramics. The techniques were unmatched. The look was clean and timeless. And the skill behind each piece made it clear that these were a craft perfected over hundreds of years.

Between 800 and 1900, this obsession with Chinese porcelain spread far beyond China. Trade routes carried it across Asia, into the Middle East, and eventually to Europe. No matter where it went, it set the standard. Collectors wanted it. Courts demanded it. And potters everywhere tried to copy it.

The Rise of Qingbai Porcelain in Song China

During the Northern Song Dynasty, from 960 to 1126, potters in Jingdezhen, located in Jiangxi Province, started making a new type of ceramic called qingbai. The name means "blue white" in Chinese. Some also call it yingqing, or "shadow blue." This ware marked a turning point in Chinese porcelain. It’s often seen as the first step toward the porcelain most people know today.

Qingbai was made using kaolin clay and a local material called China stone, or petuntse. This mix could handle very high heat. During firing, it caused the clay to shrink and harden into a glassy, tight form. This process is called porcelainization. It gave the finished product a smooth, pale, almost glowing quality.

Southern Song and the Return to Celadon

When northern invaders known as the Jurchens took control, they forced the Northern Song court to flee south. This event led to the start of the Southern Song Dynasty in 1127. With the court now closer to the famous Longquan kilns, interest in green celadon ceramics returned. This change put pressure on Jingdezhen potters to stand out again.

So, they started trying new things. One of their biggest changes was the use of metallic oxides to create designs under the glaze. This was a major turn in ceramic art. It moved focus away from just the glaze color and toward surface painting. It was the beginning of a more expressive style of ceramic decoration.

The Start of Blue and White Porcelain

Potters in Central Asia had already been painting with cobalt for centuries. Their work may have inspired Chinese artists to try the same technique. Using cobalt, Chinese potters began painting designs under a clear glaze, then firing the piece. The result was vivid blue patterns on a bright white background.

The oldest known example of this is the famous David Vases, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. These pieces are dated 1351. From this point forward, blue and white porcelain became one of China’s most recognizable exports. Even now, "china" as a term still points back to where it all began.

Blue and White Wares for Islamic Markets

Starting in the early 1620s, China began making special types of blue and white porcelain known as Transitional Wares. These were mainly for Islamic buyers and featured scenes that broke away from older styles. Instead of fish, flowers, or peonies, they showed people. Some had detailed paintings of farmers and fishermen. Others included scenes from novels or depictions of the Seven Sages, a group of third-century poets and scholars known for their drinking and writing.

This change showed just how advanced the blue and white technique had become. By the early Ming Dynasty, the skill level was about as good as it could get.

Europe’s Obsession with Chinese Porcelain

By the 1500s, Portuguese explorers had made it to China. As soon as they did, they started shipping home Chinese blue and white porcelain along with silk and spices. But it was the Dutch who really pushed Chinese ceramics into Europe.

When they couldn’t get their own trading posts in China, they resorted to force. In 1602 and 1604, they seized two Portuguese cargo ships. They sold the porcelain from these ships back home. Demand exploded. Wealthy Europeans wanted the best pieces and competed to get them. The craze for Chinese porcelain had officially started.

The Rise of Kraak Ware and the Export Trade

To meet European demand, Chinese potters created a type of export porcelain called kraak ware. It was named after the ships that brought the first pieces to Europe. These dishes were thicker and less refined than domestic wares, but could be made in large numbers. They weren’t meant for local use. They were made to be shipped.

Shipping, however, was risky. A lot of the cargo was lost at sea. One ship that didn’t make it was the Vung Tau, a private Chinese-Portuguese vessel likely heading to Batavia. It sank near Vung Tau, Vietnam, around 1690. A local fisherman found the wreck in 1986. Four years later, it was officially salvaged. Some of the pieces recovered from that shipwreck are part of the ACM exhibition today.

The Ming Collapse and the Porcelain Shortage

In the mid-1600s, Chinese porcelain production took a major hit. The Ming Dynasty fell, and China was thrown into years of civil war and unrest. Many major kiln sites were destroyed. Even the ones that survived couldn't get their goods to the coast. Ports had shut down, and foreign ships were turned away. This gap in supply, now called the Ming Gap, left a hole in the market for blue and white porcelain.

The Dutch, who were leading the global china trade at the time, had to find other ways to meet demand. So, they turned to two new sources. First, a Dutch workshop opened in Delft in 1653. It began producing tin-glazed earthenware painted with cobalt blue. These Delftwares became a local replacement for Chinese porcelain in Dutch homes.

Second, the Dutch East India Company started importing Japanese imitations of Chinese porcelain. These were made in the Hizen region, near the port of Arita, and are now called Aritaware. They were painted in blue and white, just like Chinese kraak ware.

The Rise of Imari and the Chinese Comeback

Over time, Japanese kilns in Arita added more color. They introduced underglaze red and gold accents. This new style became known as Imari, named after the port from which the wares shipped. When Chinese kilns finally reopened and resumed work, they noticed Imari's growing popularity in Europe. In response, Chinese potters began making their own version, now known as Chinese Imari.

The European Discovery of Porcelain

In 1708, Johann Böttger, a young German alchemist, cracked the formula for true porcelain. His breakthrough led to the founding of the Meissen Factory, the first successful porcelain workshop in Europe. It was backed by Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. Augustus had given Böttger several pieces of Chinese Dehua porcelain to study and copy. These became the basis for Meissen’s early work.

Soon, Meissen was one of many European workshops making porcelain modeled on both Chinese and Japanese designs. Europe’s obsession with porcelain was growing fast, and everyone wanted a piece of it.

Porcelain for the European Market

Around the same time, Chinese workshops began producing custom orders for Europeans. Traders sent coat-of-arms designs for made-to-order pieces known as armorial porcelain. Then they started sending requests for everyday European items: butter dishes, beer mugs, coffee pots. They even sent wooden models for the Chinese to copy. These items, designed in Europe and made in China, were called chine-de-commande.

Collectors in Europe didn’t just want porcelain. They wanted to turn it into something even more elaborate. They added coral from the Mediterranean, Japanese lacquer, and gilded bronze mounts crafted in France. Pieces were reworked into incense burners and display pieces that reflected the rich, over-the-top baroque style of the time.

The word “porcelain” itself came from Marco Polo. When he saw it in Kublai Khan’s court, it reminded him of a smooth white seashell. In Italian, that shell is called porcellana. The name stuck, and it still defines one of China’s most lasting and influential inventions.