Japanese Garden Design: Traditional Styles, History, and Landscaping Techniques

Core Ideas Behind Japanese Garden Design

If you want to understand how Japanese gardens work, start by looking at the ones that came before. The best way to learn is by walking through them, seeing how they feel, and noticing how they're built. Even if you're not planning to create one yourself, knowing the ideas behind these gardens will change the way you see them. There’s more going on than plants and rocks.

The oldest written guide to Japanese garden design is called the Sakuteiki. It was written in the 11th century, and the advice still holds up. Two things matter most. First, don’t copy someone else’s work. Study the land and make your own version of it. Second, a good garden isn’t finished once it’s built. You have to take care of it over time. The way it changes with the seasons is part of what makes it worth having.

What Makes a Garden “Japanese”

Japanese gardens focus on nature. They avoid fake decorations and instead use what feels real and worn by time. You’ll usually see aged stone, simple water features, and trees shaped to look natural but cared for. Japanese garden design often reflects Buddhist and Shinto values, so everything you see has meaning. The goal is to create a space that feels calm, quiet, and deeply connected to the land.

Evergreens are a big deal in Japanese gardens. They're considered the “bones” of the space because they give it structure year-round. Flowering plants do show up, but they're used sparingly. That way, when they bloom, they really stand out against all the green. Shrubs and seasonal trees, like cherry or maple, bring in short bursts of color to mark time and change.

Water is key in most traditional Japanese gardens. You might see ponds, streams, or even dry gravel beds meant to look like rivers. Rocks are just as important as plants, and they’re often arranged to feel like part of a mountain or coastline. Everything is done to create a sense of natural balance, even if it takes a lot of shaping behind the scenes.

How Japanese Garden Styles Evolved

Japanese garden design goes back over a thousand years. Over time, different styles developed, often shaped by religion or philosophy. These gardens weren’t made to be looked at from every angle. Instead, they’re designed with specific viewpoints in mind. You’re meant to see the garden from one spot at a time.

One of the earliest types was called chisen-shoyu-teien, or the lake-and-boat garden. It came from China during the Heian period, around 794 to 1185 CE. These gardens were made to be viewed from a boat drifting across a central pond. None of the original ones are left, but the style influenced what came after.

Later, during the rise of Pure Land Buddhism, the paradise garden became popular. These had islands with shrines to the Buddha, placed in the middle of water to represent spiritual distance. As time went on, people created kaiyu-shiki-teien, or strolling gardens. These are meant to be explored by walking around a set path, stopping at spots with the best views. These paths are planned so each stop feels like its own scene.

Other types include smaller, focused gardens. A moss garden is made mostly of soft green moss, often in shady areas. A dry garden, or karesansui, uses gravel and rocks to suggest water and movement without any actual water. These are closely tied to Zen Buddhism. A roji, or teahouse garden, is made to be seen from the short walk to a tea house. And a tsubo-niwa is a small garden, usually tucked into tight city spaces.

Japanese Gardens in Small Urban Spaces

Most Japanese homes today don’t have room for large gardens. But the tradition continues in other ways. One of the most common is the tsubo-niwa, a small courtyard or narrow garden fitted into tight corners between buildings or along pathways. These tiny green spaces still follow traditional design principles but are built for compact living. People also use bonsai and outdoor houseplants to bring nature into the home. In Japan, bonsai is always grown outside, not indoors.

Garden tourism is also a big part of everyday life. People visit well-known gardens across the country all year round, especially during peak seasons like cherry blossom and autumn leaves. Unlike in the West, where gardens often get redesigned over time, Japan has a strong tradition of keeping gardens as close to their original form as possible. Many famous gardens look almost exactly as they did centuries ago. Only the plants change with time. This kind of long-term care is rare outside Japan.

Western Interest in Japanese Garden Design

Japanese gardens started gaining attention in the West near the end of the 1800s. This came during the Japonisme trend, when Japanese art and design became fashionable in Europe and North America. Around that time, Western garden styles were moving away from rigid, formal layouts toward something more natural and relaxed. Japanese gardens fit that change perfectly.

They became especially popular in the UK, where the mild climate made it easy for Japanese plants to grow. Many Western gardens started to include Japanese-style sections. Even if they weren’t true Japanese gardens, they used some of the same plants and ideas. Trees like the cherry blossom and Japanese maple (Acer palmatum) are now found in gardens all over the world. These plants give a light touch of Japanese style, even when the garden layout is different.

 

Origins of Japanese Garden Culture

The core ideas behind Japanese gardens were introduced during the Asuka period, sometime in the 6th or 7th century CE. They first took shape on Honshu, the main island of Japan. Honshu’s landscape helped define how these gardens look. It’s full of steep mountains, deep valleys, fast streams, waterfalls, lakes, and rocky shores. The natural setting shaped the garden style from the beginning.

The rich plant life also played a part. Honshu has many types of evergreen trees, flowering shrubs, and plants that change with the seasons. Japan’s four distinct seasons, especially the humid summers and snowy winters, helped reinforce the idea of a garden that reflects the passage of time.

Spiritual Roots of Japanese Gardens

Japanese garden design has deep ties to Shinto, Japan’s original religion. Shinto tells the story of the eight sacred islands created at the beginning of time. It also includes the idea of shinchi, or divine lakes. Early Shinto shrines were often simple, natural places. You’d find them in forests or on beaches, marked by a sacred rock or tree wrapped with rice-fiber rope. White stones or pebbles would often surround the site, symbolizing purity.

Over time, white gravel became a standard feature in many Japanese gardens. You’ll see it at Shinto shrines, Buddhist temples, palace courtyards, and Zen gardens. The word for garden, niwa, originally referred to a space that had been cleaned and purified for the gods to visit. This idea of sacred space stayed central to Japanese gardening.

Shinto’s respect for ancient trees, large rocks, lakes, and other natural features has shaped the way gardens are made. These elements aren’t just decorative. They’re seen as having spiritual weight. That belief still drives many choices in Japanese garden design today.

Daoist and Buddhist Influences on Japanese Gardens

Japanese gardens were deeply shaped by Chinese beliefs, especially Daoism and Amida Buddhism, both introduced to Japan around 552 CE. Daoist legends spoke of five sacred islands, home to the Eight Immortals. These immortals lived in complete peace with nature and traveled on cranes. The islands floated on the back of a giant sea turtle.

In Japan, these five islands became one mythical place called Mount Horai, or Horai-zen. It symbolized a perfect, untouched world. Garden designers often built miniature versions of this mountain to represent that idea. Rocks shaped to look like cranes or turtles also became common. They were more than decoration. They pointed to harmony, long life, and peace.

Gardens in Early Japanese Imperial Life

The first known Japanese gardens were made for emperors and nobles. They were used for relaxation, celebrations, and court life. We know this from the Nihon Shoki, Japan’s oldest written history, finished in 720 CE. It describes how Emperor Keikō added carp to a pond in 74 CE and enjoyed watching them daily. A year later, he and his concubine had a lavish feast aboard a boat on a garden pond. In 486 CE, Emperor Kenzō was said to have held a feast next to a winding stream in a garden.

These weren’t just quiet spaces. They were places for parties, ceremonies, and public life. The water, islands, and natural shapes gave a peaceful setting for these events.

Cultural Exchange with China

China had a big influence on how Japanese gardens developed. When Buddhism came from China by way of Korea, it brought more than religion. Starting in the 600s, Japanese rulers sent many missions to Chinese courts. Between 630 and 838 CE, Japan sent fifteen official delegations to the Tang dynasty. Each group had hundreds of people: diplomats, monks, students, artists, and translators.

They brought back scrolls, books, artwork, and descriptions of Chinese gardens. These reports helped shape Japan’s own garden traditions. The design ideas, symbolic meaning, and layout of Chinese gardens were studied closely and adapted for Japan.

Symbolic Landscapes in Early Japanese Gardens

In 612 CE, Empress Suiko had a garden built with an artificial mountain that represented Mount Sumeru, a sacred mountain at the center of the universe in Buddhist and Hindu thought. Around the same time, one of her ministers, Soga no Umako, built a garden at his palace with a lake and islands. These islands stood for the Eight Immortals of Chinese Daoist stories.

That palace later became known as the "Palace of the Isles." It’s mentioned in Man'yōshū, the oldest known Japanese poetry collection. This shows that gardens were already part of cultural life and literature.

The First Native Japanese Gardens in Nara

The Nara period was named after Japan’s capital city at the time. It marked the start of truly Japanese-style garden design. Toward the end of the 8th century, gardens in Nara began to take a more natural form. Instead of the heavy, artificial pond borders seen in Chinese styles, the Japanese started using more natural lines and simpler stone placements.

Two early gardens have been uncovered by archaeologists. Both were used for poetry gatherings and seasonal festivities. One of them, the East Palace Garden at Heijō Palace in Nara, has been fully rebuilt in the same spot, using the same features that were found in the dig.

These early gardens often had wide ponds, manmade islands, and small hills. While they kept some of the symbolism from Buddhism and Daoism, their main purpose was enjoyment. They were places to host events, write poetry, and take in the view. The natural flow of rocks and water gave them a calm and elegant feel, which later became a signature of Japanese garden design.

Early Japanese Gardens in Nara

Archaeologists in Nara have recently uncovered two early garden sites from the 8th century. One was a pond and stream garden, called the To-in, located inside the old Imperial Palace grounds. The other, the Kyuseki stream garden, was found elsewhere in the modern city. Both are linked to the Imperial Court.

They may have been influenced by Chinese gardens, but they also show clear local roots. The rock arrangements in the To-in look more like Japan’s older stone monuments than anything from Tang China. The winding shape of the Kyuseki stream feels much looser and more natural than the formal style typical in Chinese gardens. Even if the original idea came from abroad, both gardens show early signs of what would become core features in Japanese design.

Garden Life in the Heian Capital

In 794 CE, Japan’s capital moved to Heian-kyo, now known as Kyoto. This marked the start of the Heian period, which lasted until 1185 CE. Three types of gardens took shape during this time: those around palaces and aristocratic homes in the city, private villa gardens on the outskirts, and temple gardens.

Architecture and landscaping in this period followed Chinese models. Buildings and gardens were arranged on a north-south axis. The main residence sat to the north, while ceremonial halls and the central garden faced south. Two long wings stretched from the main structure, forming an open area between them where the garden was placed.

These gardens often included lakes, bridges, and streams. But the south garden had one distinctly Japanese element: a wide area of white gravel or sand. This space had spiritual meaning. Since the emperor served as Japan’s top priest, this cleared area symbolized purity and acted as a sacred space for rituals. It was used for dances and ceremonies meant to welcome the gods.

Water, Geomancy, and Sacred Design

The design of Heian gardens followed Chinese geomancy, also known as Feng Shui. According to the Sakuteiki, Japan’s first known garden manual from the 11th century, the placement of streams mattered. The book says that good luck comes when a stream enters from the east, flows under the house, and exits to the southeast. This lets the “blue dragon” water carry away harmful spirits toward the “white tiger,” a protective symbol.

Heian Imperial gardens were built around water. These weren’t just for looks. They were social spaces, where nobles rode in lacquered boats, recited poetry, played music, painted, and looked out at distant mountains. One garden like this, Osawa no Ike, still exists near Daikaku-ji Temple in Kyoto. It was built during the reign of Emperor Saga, between 809 and 823 CE, and modeled after Dongting Lake in China.

Modern Reminders of Heian Garden Culture

In 1895, a scaled-down version of the old Imperial Palace was built in Kyoto. It was named Heian-jingu, and it celebrated 1100 years since the city became the capital. The south garden there draws crowds in spring for its cherry blossoms and again in early summer for the azaleas. The west garden blooms with irises in June. The large lake in the east garden resembles the boating traditions of the original Heian gardens.

Toward the end of the Heian period, a new garden style appeared. It was built by supporters of Pure Land Buddhism and meant to reflect the mythical Western Paradise ruled by the Amida Buddha. These "Paradise Gardens" weren’t just spiritual. They were also political. Aristocrats used them to show their power and to distance themselves from the declining Imperial court.

Byōdō-in: The Last True Paradise Garden

One of the best examples of a surviving Paradise Garden is Byōdō-in, located in Uji, just outside Kyoto. This garden began as the private villa of Fujiwara no Michinaga, a powerful court figure who ruled through strategic marriages. He arranged for his daughters to marry into the Imperial family. After Michinaga died, his son turned the estate into a Buddhist temple. In 1053, he built the Phoenix Hall, which still stands today.

The Phoenix Hall sits on an island in the center of a lake. The building follows the style of Chinese Song dynasty temples. Inside, there’s a gilded statue of Amida Buddha facing west, symbolizing the Pure Land. In front of the hall is a smaller island made of white stones. This represents Mount Horai, the mythical home of the Eight Immortals in Daoist legend. A simple bridge links the island to the temple, acting as a symbol of the spiritual path to paradise.

Byōdō-in was never built for leisure. It was made for reflection. Its design blended Buddhist and Daoist beliefs using water, rocks, and architecture. It laid the foundation for many garden designs that came after, not by being decorative, but by making space for quiet thought.

Other Heian Gardens That Still Remain

Though most original gardens from the Heian era were lost to time and war, a few places still show what that period’s landscapes looked like. These include Daikaku-ji, Byōdō-in, the Kyoto Imperial Palace, and Jōruri-ji. Some have been rebuilt, while others still hold original features. They reflect a time when gardens were deeply tied to power, religion, and elite culture.

Warfare and the Fall of Kyoto’s Gardens

By the mid-1100s, Japan’s central government had weakened. Emperors lost real control, and rival warlords fought for dominance. Two civil wars, in 1156 and 1159, tore Kyoto apart. Much of the city and its gardens were destroyed. Power moved to Kamakura, and later, in 1336, back to Kyoto’s Muromachi district. By then, emperors were symbolic. The shogun, a military ruler, held actual control.

It was during this time that Japan reestablished contact with China. For centuries, that connection had been cut off. Now, Japanese monks traveled to China again, and Chinese monks, fleeing the Mongol invasions, came to Japan. They brought a new school of Buddhism known as Zen. This sparked a revival in religious practice, the arts, and especially in garden making.

The Rise and Myth of the “Zen Garden”

The term “Zen garden” didn’t appear in English until the 1930s. The Japanese terms zen teien or zenteki teien only came into use around the 1950s. These names were given to dry landscape gardens that imitated Song dynasty ink painting. Small, stylized, and often abstract, these gardens used gravel, rock, and minimal planting to suggest nature in its simplest form.

But calling them Zen gardens is misleading. Their layout doesn’t follow any strict Zen teachings. The name stuck, mostly because of Western interest in Zen, not because the gardens were made for meditation by Zen monks. In truth, these scenic gardens were designed using artistic and philosophical ideas more than religious rules. Still, they’ve come to symbolize quiet, focus, and inner stillness in modern Japanese garden design.

Zen Garden Design in the Muromachi Period

During the Muromachi period, some of Japan’s most famous temple gardens were created. Two of the best-known examples are Kinkaku-ji, the Golden Pavilion, built in 1398, and Ginkaku-ji, the Silver Pavilion, built in 1482. These gardens followed some Zen ideas like simplicity and restraint, but they also kept older Chinese influences. For example, the Golden Pavilion has gold leaf covering its top floors, and both temples were built beside large water gardens, reflecting the classic Song-dynasty style from China.

This period also introduced the Zen garden, also known as the dry garden or rock garden. It became one of the most important and well-known garden styles in Japanese design. The most iconic example is the garden at Ryōan-ji in Kyoto. It’s small, only about 9 by 24 meters, and made of white sand and fifteen carefully placed rocks. The sand is raked in patterns to look like flowing water, and the stones are arranged to resemble islands. This garden is meant to be viewed while sitting down on the porch of the abbot’s residence.

People have tried to explain what the rocks represent, but no one agrees. According to garden historian Gunter Nitschke, the garden isn’t meant to symbolize anything. It doesn’t try to copy any real-world scene. Instead, it’s an abstract space using natural elements, created to make people stop and reflect.

Musō Soseki and the Rise of Zen Garden Craft

Many of Kyoto’s famous Zen gardens came from the vision of one man: Musō Soseki. He lived from 1275 to 1351 and was not only a Zen monk but also a skilled politician and writer. He descended from Emperor Uda and held real influence in the court. He helped build trade routes with China and formed the Five Mountains, a powerful network of Zen temples in Kyoto.

Musō Soseki designed the gardens at several major temples. These include Nanzen-ji, Saihō-ji, also known as the Moss Garden, and Tenryū-ji. Each of these places still draws visitors for their unique take on Zen garden design, combining stillness, texture, and space to create peaceful, reflective environments.

Famous Gardens from the Kamakura and Muromachi Periods

Several gardens from this time remain famous today. They include Kinkaku-ji and Ginkaku-ji, as well as Nanzen-ji, Saihō-ji, Tenryū-ji, and Daisen-in. These gardens helped set the standard for Japanese garden aesthetics, balancing strong structure with quiet elegance.

Garden Changes During the Momoyama Period

The Momoyama period was brief, lasting just 32 years, and was marked by power struggles between feudal lords, or daimyō. These leaders built castles to secure their rule, and many of Japan’s new political and cultural centers grew around them. New cities formed, and with them came new gardens.

Gardens of the Momoyama era were usually built near the main residence, called a shoin, close to the castle walls. These gardens were designed to be viewed from above, from high windows or balconies. Daimyō had access to armies and tools for moving massive stones, which they used to build large rock features and create artificial lakes. These lakes were lined with smooth pebbles and shaped with boulders, stone bridges, and stepping stones.

What made these gardens unique was how they mixed ideas. They borrowed the flow of promenade gardens, where you move along winding paths to see different views, and mixed that with Zen features like artificial hills. The result was a hybrid design that worked both for quiet viewing and walking exploration.

Stone Bridges and Symbolism in Late Momoyama Gardens

One of the standout gardens from the late Momoyama period was built in 1592 near Tokushima Castle on Shikoku Island. What makes it special is its stone bridge. The bridge is over ten meters long and built from just two natural stones. That kind of detail shows how much skill and effort went into garden construction at the time. Every element was made to feel both natural and impressive.

Another important garden from this time is Sanbō-in, which Toyotomi Hideyoshi rebuilt in 1598. He did it to mark a cherry blossom festival and to bring back the elegance of older garden traditions. The scale of the work was massive. Three hundred workers dug out the lakes and placed around seven hundred boulders into a space that’s just over 500 square meters. The whole layout was designed to be seen from specific places, especially from the main veranda and from a higher point called the Hall of the Pure View.

Sanbō-in’s design is packed with meaning. On a peninsula in the eastern part of the garden, a group of stones forms a symbolic version of Mount Horai, a legendary place from Chinese mythology. A wooden bridge connects that peninsula to an island shaped like a crane. From there, a stone bridge links to another island shaped like a tortoise. A final earth-covered bridge leads back to the main land. There’s also a waterfall flowing at the base of a wooded slope. A common feature of gardens from this period, clearly seen here, is how closely the buildings sit to the water. The view and water are always connected.

The Rise of the Tea Garden and the Wabi Aesthetic

The Momoyama period wasn’t just about castles and grand gardens. It also gave rise to the tea ceremony, the tea house, and the tea garden. Tea had made its way from China earlier, brought by monks who drank it to stay awake while meditating. But during this period, it became something much deeper. The first great tea master, Sen no Rikyū, set the tone for how tea should be prepared and experienced. He shaped the style of both the tea house and the surrounding garden, following the idea of wabi - a sense of simple beauty, quiet, and subtle elegance.

Rikyū believed a tea house should feel like the shelter of a humble monk. It was meant to be small and unadorned. Most had thatched roofs and were just big enough for two tatami mats. Inside, the only allowed decorations were a hanging scroll with a line of calligraphy and a single tree branch. The tea house wasn’t supposed to give a view of the garden. Instead, the garden was something you passed through.

The tea garden, or roji, was designed to look soft and quiet. The ground stayed damp and green. You might see a cherry or elm tree for a bit of seasonal color, but nothing too showy. Flashy plants had no place here. The path to the tea house had its own flow. There was a waiting bench and an outdoor toilet along the way. A stone basin sat near the entrance, where guests would wash their hands and mouths. To enter the tea house, they had to crouch through a small square door called a nijiri-guchi. This entrance forced everyone, no matter their status, to lower themselves before entering. That was part of the whole idea.

Rikyū even insisted that the garden be left unswept for a few hours before the ceremony. The fallen leaves on the path were part of the scene, arranged by nature, not by the host. That detail captured the essence of wabi: quiet, lived-in beauty, never forced.

Noteworthy Gardens from the Period

Three places from this period still stand out today. The garden near Tokushima Castle on Shikoku is known for its long, natural stone bridge. The Sanbō-in garden at Daigo-ji, rebuilt in 1598, is a masterclass in symbolic design and elegant layout. And the Tai-an tea house at Myōki-an Temple in Kyoto, built in 1582 by Sen no Rikyū, remains a key example of how simplicity and purpose shaped the tea culture and its garden design.

Garden Design During the Edo Period

When the Tokugawa clan took control during the Edo period, they made Edo the new capital. That city later became Tokyo. The emperor stayed behind in Kyoto, still holding a symbolic role in religion and culture. So while the political power moved east, Kyoto remained the heart of Japanese tradition, art, and ceremony. The shogun gave the emperor little actual authority, but did provide steady funding to support garden building.

During this time, a new kind of Japanese architecture took off. It was called sukiya-zukuri, which means "built by personal taste." The name showed up near the end of the 1500s and was first used to describe quiet tea houses. At first, this style was tied to rural homes built by monks and samurai. But during the Edo period, it spread across every kind of building, from homes to royal villas.

The best example of this style is the Katsura Imperial Villa in Kyoto. Its buildings were plain, open, and simple. They weren’t covered in decoration. The whole point was to blend indoor and outdoor space. Whether you were inside or out, the idea was to feel fully surrounded by nature. The buildings were always placed to be seen from an angle, not straight on. That layout was called ganko, which means “wild geese in flight.” The design choice created a quiet rhythm, as if the structures moved with the garden around them.

How Edo Gardens Were Built

Most Edo gardens were either large stroll gardens or dry rock gardens based on Zen ideas. These stroll gardens were much bigger than earlier designs. They used a method called shakkei, or borrowed scenery. That meant pulling in outside views to expand the feel of the garden. A garden could be built on a hillside, using the slope to show distant mountains or forested valleys beyond its edges. In the best cases, nature outside the garden became part of the garden itself.

These Edo stroll gardens were usually built around a path, with different areas set up like snapshots. Each section had a “famous view,” called a meisho. These views copied real landmarks like Mount Fuji, or imagined places from religious stories and poetry. Unlike dry Zen gardens, which were meant to show nature’s rules in abstract form, Edo gardens were more literal. They tried to show nature the way it looked, not the way it worked.

Famous Edo Period Gardens

A few Edo-era gardens still stand today and show off the style and ideas of that time. The Katsura Villa is one, but there are many others across Japan. These include Shugakuin Imperial Villa, Shisen-dō in Kyoto, and Suizen-ji in Kumamoto. Hama Rikyu stands out in Tokyo, while Kōraku-en in Okayama and Ritsurin Garden in Takamatsu are both large and well preserved.

Koishikawa Kōraku-en in Tokyo dates back to 1629 and uses both Chinese and Japanese design ideas. Kyoto is home to several key gardens from the Edo period. These include Ninna-ji, Enman-in in Otsu, and Sanzen-in to the north. Further south, there’s Sengan-en in Kagoshima, built in 1658. Other gardens include Chishaku-in and Jōju-in near the Kiyomizu Temple, both from the late 1600s. Manshu-in to the northeast and Nanzen-ji to the east of Kyoto also reflect the values of this period. Each of these gardens shows a slightly different take on the same core idea: bring nature close, guide the view, and let time move through the space.

Japanese Gardens in the Meiji Period

When Japan entered the Meiji period, the country opened back up to the West and moved quickly toward modernization. This change had a big impact on garden culture. Many old gardens from the Edo period were abandoned. Some fell into ruin. In 1871, a new law saved many of them by turning them into public parks. This gave the gardens a second life and helped preserve traditional design.

At the same time, Western garden ideas started showing up. Designers began to experiment, blending local traditions with European styles. Some gardens, like Kyu-Furukawa Gardens and Shinjuku Gyoen in Tokyo, show this mix clearly. Others, especially in northern Japan, kept to the older Edo-style layout, sticking with borrowed scenery, natural rock placement, and quiet strolling paths.

A new approach also began to take shape. Wealthy political figures and business leaders, like Aritomo Yamagata, created large private gardens that felt more open and natural. These didn’t follow strict patterns but aimed to feel like real, untamed nature. Gardeners quickly adapted to meet this demand, and a fresh style began to take hold.

One of the best-known masters of this new naturalistic design was Ogawa Jihei VII, often called Ueji. His work stood out for its exacting detail and balance. He helped define the garden style that would influence many designs in the years that followed.

Key gardens from this time include Kyu-Furukawa Gardens, Kenroku-en, which was developed through the 18th and 19th centuries and completed in 1874, Chinzan-so in Tokyo, created in 1877, and Murin-an in Kyoto, finished in 1898.

Garden Development During the Shōwa Period

The Shōwa period, which ran from 1926 to 1989, saw another wave of traditional garden building. But now, the people behind these projects were different. Instead of private landowners, gardens were mostly built by companies, schools, hotels, and government agencies. Businessmen and politicians often funded new projects, especially before and during the early part of the period.

After World War II, garden making became part of larger construction projects. Architects began to treat gardens as part of a building’s surroundings. Instead of being separate, gardens were tied to the structure and its use. Modern materials, including concrete, started showing up more in these spaces. Garden design was no longer just about nature. It also had to fit into urban planning and modern landscapes.

Some landscape architects still followed the old rules. Mirei Shigemori, for example, created new gardens based on classical Zen layouts. His work at Tōfuku-ji in Kyoto showed how modern design could still respect the past.

Others went in a completely different direction. One major project that pushed boundaries was Awaji Yumebutai. Built by Tadao Ando on the island of Awaji, it sits on land that had been stripped away for airport construction. Ando transformed the damaged slope into a massive garden as part of a resort and conference center. The result mixes clean concrete forms with bold plantings and views over the sea. It’s a strong example of how modern Japanese gardens can evolve without losing their sense of place.

 

The Meaning Behind Japanese Garden Features

Japanese gardens aren’t just pretty. They’re built to reflect deeper ideas about nature, time, and the spirit world. Unlike Western gardens, which are often made to look bright and symmetrical, Japanese gardens follow a different set of values. The design is tied to old Shinto beliefs that say spirits live in nature. Because of this, traditional Japanese gardens use real, natural materials. Stones, water, wood, and plants are all chosen to feel like they belong to the landscape.

The goal is to show nature in a controlled way that still feels wild. Every detail in the garden is planned, but it shouldn’t look forced. The space is meant to feel peaceful and natural, but nothing is random. The garden becomes a mirror of nature, shaped by hand but grounded in real elements.

Main Types of Japanese Gardens

Most traditional Japanese gardens fall into one of three categories. There’s tsukiyama, which are hill gardens. These use mounds and rocks to suggest mountains and valleys. Then there’s karesansui, or dry gardens, which are built using gravel, sand, and stone. These represent landscapes like rivers or seas without using water. And there are chaniwa, also called tea gardens, made to set the mood for tea ceremonies. These usually have a simple layout and a quiet path that leads to a teahouse.

The spaces used for these gardens are often small, which makes the design harder. Finding the right rock, the perfect tree, or the best place to put a stone takes time. Japanese gardeners are extremely selective with materials. That’s because two things matter most in their design approach: scaled reduction and symbolism. That means taking something big from nature, like a mountain or river, and representing it in a small way, while also making it mean something deeper.

Water in Japanese Garden Design

Water is always part of the design, either for real or in a symbolic way. If there’s no pond or stream, then white sand or gravel stands in for it. In Buddhist thinking, water and stone are like yin and yang. They’re opposites, but they balance each other. That balance is key in every part of the garden.

In most traditional gardens, the water feature is shaped like a pond or has winding streams. Larger ones might have more than one pond, linked together by a narrow stream or a small waterfall. These aren’t placed randomly. The layout follows rules from ancient guides, especially the Sakuteiki, which is the first known Japanese garden manual. It was written in the 11th century and still influences garden design today.

Spiritual Placement of Water

According to the Sakuteiki, the direction of water flow matters. Water should enter the garden from the east or southeast and move toward the west. In ancient cosmology, the east is home to the Green Dragon, and the west is where the White Tiger lives. If the water flows east to west, it’s believed to sweep away bad energy and bring health and long life. Another good setup is water flowing from north to south. In Buddhist terms, north represents water and south stands for fire. Putting them together creates a balance of opposites, which is said to attract luck.

Styles of Water-Based Landscapes

The Sakuteiki also describes different layout styles you can use with water features. The ocean style has stones shaped like they’ve been worn down by waves, plus a sandy shore and pine trees. The broad river style mimics the curves of a wide, twisting river. The marsh pond style uses a large, still pond filled with plants that grow in water. The mountain torrent style is packed with stones, waterfalls, and fast-moving streams. Then there’s the rose letters style, which is more bare and simple. It uses flat rocks, small plants, and gentle slopes to create a soft, quiet feel.

Each style offers a different take on the natural world, but they all stay rooted in careful design, spiritual symbolism, and respect for the land. Japanese gardens aren’t just about how they look. They’re about what they mean and how they make you feel.

Symbolic Islands in Traditional Japanese Gardens

Japanese gardens often include small islands set inside ponds or lakes. These islands aren't just for looks. They usually carry deep symbolic meaning. In temple gardens, one island often stands in for Mount Penglai or Mount Hōrai, both legendary homes of the Eight Immortals. These sacred places represent paradise and eternal life. Including them in a garden creates a link between nature and the spiritual world.

The Sakuteiki, Japan’s oldest garden manual, outlines different types of man-made islands. One is the mountainous island, made from sharp, jagged stones and small pine trees, edged with a sandy beach. Another is the rocky island, built with rough stones shaped by the sea, paired with twisted old pine trees. There’s also the cloud island, shaped from white sand to look like a soft cumulus cloud. And the misty island, which uses only sand and no rocks or trees, meant to suggest a low fog rolling in over the water.

The Role of Cascades and Waterfalls

A waterfall, or cascade, is another key part of traditional Japanese gardens. These are mini versions of real mountain waterfalls. The Sakuteiki names seven different types. One important rule is that the cascade should face the moon if possible, so the water can catch its reflection at night. Another tip is to build the waterfall partly in the shadows. That way, it feels more quiet and hidden, like a secret part of the garden.

Stones, Sand, and Gravel in Garden Design

Rocks and sand aren't just filler. They carry serious meaning. A standing stone can represent Mount Horai or Mount Sumeru, both sacred places in myth and Buddhist belief. Some stones suggest a fish leaping from water. A flat rock might stand for the earth. Sand and gravel often represent rivers, shorelines, or even clouds. These materials also reflect yin and yang (in Japanese, in and yō). The solid rock and the soft water show the balance of opposites. Even gentle water can slowly wear down hard stone.

Different types of rocks are used for different purposes. Volcanic rocks, rough and uneven, often show up as mountain shapes or stepping stones. Round, smooth stones made from sediment are placed near lakes. Hard metamorphic rocks go near streams and waterfalls. Each rock has its place based on how it feels and what it represents.

Rocks are sorted into shapes: tall vertical, low vertical, leaning, arched, lying down, and flat. They’re chosen in different sizes and shades, but none of them should be bright or distracting. If a rock has natural veins or lines, they should all flow in the same direction. Stones need to be set deep into the earth, so they feel solid and permanent. A group of rocks is usually arranged in sets of two, three, five, or seven, with three being the most common. In a trio, the tallest rock stands for heaven, the smallest is earth, and the middle-sized rock represents humanity, the link between both.

Sometimes you’ll see a stone placed off to the side that doesn’t seem to fit. These are called suteishi, which means "discarded stones." They look random, but they’re placed with care to make the space feel natural and unscripted.

The Deeper Meaning of Sand and Stone Placement

Sand and gravel were first used in Shinto and Buddhist temples. Later, they became a central part of rock gardens. White sand stands for purity, but other colors like gray, brown, or dark blue are also used. Over time, sand came to represent water. It could also symbolize clouds or empty space.

Stone placement is one of the most important parts of Japanese garden design. The way each rock is chosen and set down affects the whole look and feel of the garden. This idea goes back to the Heian period, when stones began to represent real and imagined islands. The Japanese word shima means “island,” and holds a deeper meaning in this context.

There’s also a key design rule called kowan ni shitagau. It means to follow the stone’s natural shape. In other words, don’t force a rock into a spot where it doesn’t belong. Let its texture, size, and feel decide where it goes. This principle guides the entire structure of a garden. It’s about working with the material, not against it.

That respect for the natural character of each stone is part of what gives traditional Japanese gardens their quiet strength. Everything looks simple, but behind it is a deep attention to detail, a steady hand, and a long history of meaning.

The Role of Stones in Japanese Garden Design

In Japanese gardens, rocks are never placed by accident. Each one is chosen for its shape, its texture, and how time has aged it. Designers place stones in a way that makes them feel like they’ve always been there. They’re arranged to look natural, but every decision is careful. The goal is to imitate what you’d find in untouched nature, far from roads, cities, or manmade noise.

This approach isn’t just about beauty. It’s about creating a space that captures nature’s deeper feel. The way rocks sit together, the way they lean or support one another, helps tell that story. The garden becomes a reflection of nature’s raw structure. Stones aren’t decorations. They’re the foundation of the garden’s meaning.

Balance Between Simplicity and Detail

Rock placement in Japanese gardens aims to show the heart of nature. It’s not just about copying a landscape. It’s about pulling out the parts that matter most. The way stones are placed, how they relate to each other, and the small features like moss growing on them, all add layers to the scene.

Sometimes, this focus on tiny details can become intense. For people used to broad, open garden layouts, all these little features might feel too busy. But in Japanese garden design, every element matters. Nothing is thrown in just to fill space. The shape of one rock or the way moss spreads across a lantern might change the entire mood.

You can see this level of care in places like Kenroku-en Garden in Kanazawa. The rocks at the base of Midori Falls have been changed over time by six different daimyō. Each change was intentional. Each change reflected a different vision. That kind of hands-on care shows how much weight the details carry in these gardens.

The Layout of Early Japanese Gardens

Back in the Heian period, Japanese gardens followed Chinese models. Buildings took up a lot of space. The gardens were made to be viewed from inside, usually from a veranda or a small pavilion. You weren’t meant to walk through them. You looked out at the scene as if it were a painting.

Later on, that changed. Gardens became more hidden. The focus moved toward personal spaces. Teahouses were tucked into quiet corners. Garden paths had simple benches and open shelters where visitors could stop, rest, and think. Eventually, garden and home started blending together. People built houses with sliding walls so they could open up and frame the garden like a live picture. The boundary between inside and outside became thinner.

Bridges as Symbols and Structures

Bridges started showing up in Japanese gardens during the Heian period. One of the earliest examples is in the garden at Byōdō-in in Kyoto. A wooden bridge there links the Phoenix Pavilion to a stone island. That island represents Mount Penglai, a place from Daoist teachings said to be home to the Eight Immortals. The bridge isn’t just for walking. It stands for the path to immortality, a crossing from the world we know into something greater.

Bridges in Japanese gardens can be made in many ways. Some are stone. Some are wood. Others are built from logs and covered with earth and moss. Some arch gently. Others lie flat. In temple gardens, you might see them painted red, a tradition brought from China. But most stay natural, blending in with the rest of the landscape.

Promenade Gardens and Flowing Garden Paths

During the Edo period, large stroll gardens became the trend. These were called promenade gardens, and they were designed for walking. Winding paths led visitors past changing views, with small bridges guiding the way. These bridges were often built from rough stone or natural wood, keeping everything simple and natural. The goal was to create a journey through the landscape, where each turn revealed something new.

Stone Lanterns and Their Meaning

Stone lanterns, known as dai-dōrō in Japanese, first showed up during the Nara and Heian periods. At first, they were only used at Buddhist temples, lined along walkways to light the path. Later, they appeared at Shinto shrines too. By the Momoyama period, tea masters began placing them in tea gardens. From there, they started being used more as decoration, but they still carried deep meaning.

A full-size stone lantern was more than just a light. Each part of it stood for something. The base, which sits on the ground, stands for earth. Above that is water, then fire, which surrounds the light itself. The top two parts stand for air and spirit. Together, the whole lantern shows how we return to the natural elements after death. Like other features in a Japanese garden, the lantern is both beautiful and symbolic.

Water Basins and Ritual Washing

Water basins, called tsukubai, are often placed in tea gardens. These stone bowls were made for guests to wash their hands and mouth before a tea ceremony. The water usually comes from a bamboo spout, or kakei, and a wooden ladle sits nearby. In traditional gardens, the basin is set low to the ground, so people have to bend to reach it. That small act is part of the ritual and reflects respect and humility.

Intentional Plant Choices and Natural Effects

Nothing in a Japanese garden happens by chance. Every tree, shrub, or patch of moss is put there with a reason. Plants are selected to block out things that shouldn't be seen or to frame other parts of the garden. The aim is always to build a natural-looking scene that feels right from every angle. Fall foliage is one example. Gardeners pick trees that change color beautifully, just to highlight the season.

Moss is used to make the space feel old and quiet. Seasonal flowers are chosen carefully, but formal flower beds are rare in older gardens. More modern ones may include them. Some plants have religious meaning too. The lotus, tied to Buddhist belief, and the pine, which symbolizes long life, are both common choices.

Tree Shaping and the Art of Niwaki

Trees in Japanese gardens don’t grow wild. They're shaped and trimmed so they look just right. Gardeners use a technique called niwaki to guide their growth. The result is a tree that looks older, wiser, and more sculpted than it would naturally. This shaping keeps the views open and lets the tree play a role in the whole scene.

Some trees are bent on purpose to cast shadows or create better reflections in ponds. Old pines, in particular, need help. Their long branches might be supported with wooden poles, known as tsurazue or hōdzue shichū. In the snow, cords may be tied to the branches to stop them from snapping.

Ōkarikomi: The Wave-Shaped Bushes

In the late 1500s, a new garden art appeared. It was called ōkarikomi, which means large trimming. This method shaped shrubs into smooth, rounded forms that looked like flowing waves. Azaleas were a favorite plant for this. The look was different from European topiary, which aimed for rigid shapes. In Japanese gardens, the goal was softness, motion, and a play of light across the surface.

Ōkarikomi gave gardens a sense of movement without using water. It added texture and rhythm. According to garden historians, it also stirred the sense of touch, something that Japanese design often focuses on. The shapes felt alive, as if they were part of a living landscape, not separate from it.

Trees and Plants That Shape the Japanese Garden

Japanese gardens rely on a specific group of trees and plants. Each one is chosen for how it looks through the seasons and how it fits into the space. Common trees include rhododendron, camellia, and several types of oak, especially the Japanese oak, Quercus dentata. You'll also often find elms, willows, ginkgo trees, and flowering plums like ume. Cherry blossoms, or sakura, are especially valued for their brief, dramatic bloom. Maples show off brilliant red and orange leaves in autumn. Japanese cypress, cedar, pine, and bamboo are used for their structure and texture.

Each plant serves a purpose. Some create shade. Others frame a view. Some add bursts of color, while evergreens offer consistency year-round. Bamboo is especially flexible. It’s used as a screen, a border, or even a symbol of strength and flexibility.

Fish and Wildlife in Japanese Garden Ponds

The use of ornamental fish in garden ponds started in China and later became part of Japanese garden design. Goldfish came first. They were developed in China by breeding plain gray carp that showed rare colors. By the time of the Song dynasty, breeders had created goldfish in yellow, orange, white, and red-white mixes. These were brought to Japan in the 1500s and became part of the garden tradition.

Koi, which are colorful carp, were developed in Japan in the early 1800s. They came from regular common carp. Gardeners bred them for specific colors like red, white, black, and gold. Koi are not a different species. If left to breed freely, their colors fade over time and return to the original gray. Koi ponds are now a classic garden feature, used for both beauty and calm movement.

Some gardens also keep turtles, which add a sense of stillness and age. Wild animals often visit, too. Frogs, birds, and insects are drawn to the garden naturally. Their presence adds sound and life, bringing rhythm and balance to the quiet landscape. The sound of birds calling or frogs croaking adds another layer to the experience, turning the garden into a full sensory space.

 

Core Aesthetic Principles in Japanese Garden Design

Japanese gardens started out closely tied to Chinese design. Over time, they developed their own look and meaning. Manuals like the Sakuteiki, written during the Heian period from 794 to 1185 CE, laid the foundation for these changes. As the culture changed, so did the design. Sacred temple gardens and leisurely promenade gardens were built with different goals in mind. Zen gardens, for example, are meant to be seen while seated. You're not supposed to walk through them. Promenade gardens are the opposite. They're meant to be explored slowly, step by step. But even with their differences, both kinds of gardens use the same core techniques.

Miniature Landscapes That Mirror Nature

A Japanese garden is never just a garden. It's a small-scale version of the natural world. Everything is symbolic. A pond might stand in for the ocean. A few upright rocks might suggest a mountain range. Designers often use tricks like forced perspective to make the garden seem deeper or wider. They’ll put bigger stones and fuller trees near the front and tuck smaller ones farther back. That way, the space feels larger than it is.

Hide and Reveal with Natural Barriers

Unlike Zen gardens, which are laid out to be seen all at once, stroll gardens are made to be discovered in parts. This idea is known as miegakure, or “hide and reveal.” As you walk along the path, the view changes. You might spot a bridge, then lose sight of it as you turn. You might see a stone lantern appear from behind a tree. Nothing is shown all at once. The goal is to slow you down and let each scene stand on its own.

Borrowing Views from the World Beyond

Another technique used in small gardens is called shakkei, or borrowed scenery. Designers will frame parts of the background outside the garden, like a distant hill or a pagoda. By pulling in what’s already there, they make the space feel more connected to its surroundings. It also tricks the eye into thinking the garden extends beyond its walls.

Using Asymmetry for Natural Balance

Japanese gardens avoid neat lines and perfect balance. You won’t find a central fountain or straight paths. Instead, features are placed at angles or off to the side. Gardens are often arranged so they feel like natural scenes, not planned ones. A house or wall might sit on one side while a cluster of trees or stones softens the other. Vertical elements like bamboo or stone are set against wide, flat ones like ponds or gravel beds. It’s all about contrast, but done with care.

Art, Not Imitation

To Japanese designers, a garden isn’t just a piece of land. It’s art. But it’s not meant to look like a wild, untouched forest. It’s meant to feel like nature without being overrun by it. As garden historians have put it, these spaces are not exact copies of the natural world. They’re carefully shaped versions of it. Every part is chosen and placed with purpose, even if the final result feels effortless.

Natural Complexity at Every Level

Some garden layouts have been studied mathematically. What researchers found is that traditional Japanese gardens avoid anything that draws too much attention. There's no single point that stands out. Everything is balanced. The shapes, groupings, and spacing between elements are arranged so that no one area takes over the whole view.

Designers also use repeating patterns across different sizes. A cluster of large rocks might be repeated in a smaller arrangement nearby. This repetition at different scales is similar to how fractals appear in nature. Even the surface of the rocks or the texture of moss lawns can carry this pattern. These tiny details play into the larger theme of wabi-sabi, the idea that there is beauty in imperfection and change over time.

 

How Japanese Gardens Differ from Chinese Gardens

Japanese gardens got their start by copying Chinese styles, especially during the Heian period. But over time, especially by the Edo period, they split off and developed their own approach. The changes showed up in how space was used, where buildings were placed, and what materials were chosen.

Architecture in the Garden

One major difference is where the buildings go. In Chinese gardens, especially classical ones, buildings often sit right in the center of the space. They usually cover a lot of ground and are placed next to or directly over the water. These structures are bold, detailed, and filled with decoration. The building itself is often the main focus.

In contrast, Japanese gardens tend to push buildings away from the water. The structures are smaller and much simpler. You won’t find a lot of decoration. Often, the buildings are partially hidden or blended into the landscape. In Japanese design, the garden leads and the building follows.

Where You're Meant to Look From

Another big transformation is the viewing angle. Chinese gardens are meant to be enjoyed from the inside. The pavilions and halls are set up so you can look out across the garden from a sheltered place. The experience is focused on what you see from within the structure.

Japanese gardens are usually meant to be viewed from the outside. This is clear in styles like the Zen rock garden, which is designed to be seen while seated from a fixed point. Promenade gardens are meant to be walked through. The path becomes the frame, and the view changes as you move. You're part of the experience, not looking out at it from a distance.

How Rocks Are Used

Rocks play a role in both types of gardens, but they're handled differently. In traditional Chinese gardens, especially those from the Ming dynasty, large and unusual rocks were picked for their strange forms. They might look like animals or mountains. These scholar's rocks were placed front and center, almost like sculptures.

Japanese gardens use rocks too, but they’re usually smaller and more restrained. Instead of standing out, they’re placed in ways that feel natural. They're used to support the scene, not steal attention. The focus is on balance, not drama.

Landscape Inspiration and Coastal Scenes

Chinese gardens were built to reflect inland landscapes. Designers tried to recreate the feeling of lakes, rivers, and distant mountains. These ideas came from classic Chinese paintings and poetry.

Japanese gardens lean into their coastal surroundings. They often feature white sand, gravel beaches, and stones that look like they’ve been shaped by the sea. You’ll find rocks placed like small islands, or smooth stones that seem like they’ve been hit by years of waves. These kinds of coastal details are common in Japan but rarely show up in Chinese garden design.

So while both garden styles came from similar roots, Japanese gardens slowly moved toward simplicity, subtlety, and a stronger tie to their natural surroundings. The result is a design that feels less about showing off and more about quiet connection.

 

Chisen-Shoyu-Teien: The Lake and Boat Garden

The chisen-shoyu-teien started in the Heian period, between 794 and 1185 CE. It came from China and is also called the shinden-zukuri style, based on the type of architecture used at the time. These gardens were built around a big residence that had two long wings stretching toward a lake. Each wing ended in a pavilion where people could sit and enjoy the view of the water. Visitors didn’t just walk through these gardens. They got in boats and toured the lake.

The lakes were large, with islands placed throughout. Musicians sometimes played from these islands during festivals, and people would look across the water during religious ceremonies. The design reflected elegance, peace, and nature blended with manmade order. Though no original gardens from this time still exist, there are reconstructions you can see today at Heian-jingu and Daikaku-ji Temple in Kyoto.

Paradise Gardens and Amida Buddhism

Later in the Heian period, the Paradise Garden style emerged. These were built by followers of Amida Buddhism and were meant to reflect the Pure Land, a peaceful space where the Buddha rests on a lotus platform. The center of each garden had a lake with an island called Nakajima, where a Buddha hall stood. A curved bridge connected the island to the edge of the lake.

These gardens weren’t just about appearance. They were meant to create a spiritual experience. The layout symbolized rebirth and awakening. The Phoenix Hall at Byodo-in Temple in Uji, built in 1053, is the most famous example still standing. Other well-known gardens in this style include Joruri-ji in Kyoto, Enro-ji in Nara, Hokongoin in Kyoto, Motsu-ji in Hiraizumi, and Shiramizu Amidado Garden in Iwaki.

Karesansui: The Zen Rock Garden

During the 14th century, a new style called karesansui took hold. These dry landscape gardens, also known as Zen rock gardens, used white gravel or sand to stand in for water. Carefully placed rocks created the shapes of islands, rivers, or mountains. Some parts of the garden were covered in moss to show age and softness.

The monk Muso Soseki played a major role in making this style popular. He designed gardens at the top five Zen temples in Kyoto. The gardens were meant to be meditated on, not walked through. You were supposed to sit quietly on the porch and look out over the scene. Everything in the layout was designed to calm the mind. The best-known example is at Ryoan-ji Temple in Kyoto. It’s still one of the most visited Zen gardens in the world.

Tea Gardens and the Way of Tea

The tea garden appeared during the Muromachi period and continued into the Momoyama period, from 1333 to 1600. These gardens were built around the chanoyu, the Japanese tea ceremony. The design helped prepare the guest mentally for the ritual. The garden wasn't just decoration. It set the tone.

The path leading to the teahouse is called the roji. This path passes through two parts. First, there's the outer garden, where guests wait in a covered shelter until they’re invited inside. Then they move through a gate into the inner garden, where they wash their hands and mouth, like at a Shinto shrine. After that, they enter the teahouse.

The whole area is kept green and damp, like a forest path. Bright flowers are avoided so nothing pulls focus away from the mood of quiet reflection. Early teahouses were closed off with no windows. Later designs added a sliding wall that could open, giving a view of the garden outside while keeping the space simple and calm.

Stroll Gardens and the Art of Moving Through Space

Stroll gardens, or promenade gardens, came into style during the Edo period, from 1600 to 1854. These were large landscape gardens made for walking, not just looking. They were built at villas owned by nobles or powerful warlords, and they were designed to match the new sukiya-zukuri homes, a style inspired by teahouses. The path was always meant to be followed in a clockwise direction, guiding the visitor through one planned view after another.

These gardens used smart design tricks to make the space feel bigger and more dramatic. One method was called shakkei, or borrowed scenery. Designers would use nearby mountains, forests, or temples as part of the garden’s view, so it felt like the garden kept going far past its actual borders. Another method was called miegakure, or hide and reveal. Paths were laid out to block the view with fences, bamboo, or buildings, only to open it up again at just the right spot.

A lot of Edo-period gardens included famous landscapes in miniature. Some recreated well-known places, others brought to life scenes from poetry or fiction. Suizen-ji Joju-en in Kumamoto has a tiny version of Mount Fuji. Katsura Villa in Kyoto includes a copy of the Ama-no-hashidate sandbar. Rikugi-en Garden in Tokyo features miniature scenes based on 88 classic Japanese poems. These gardens told stories.

Tsubo-Niwa: Small Gardens with Big Impact

Tsubo-niwa, or courtyard gardens, started during the Heian period, inside palace courtyards. These tiny spaces gave people in the back rooms of the palace a private view of nature. They were only about one tsubo in size, or roughly 3.3 square meters. That’s where the name comes from. In the Edo period, these small gardens showed up behind merchant shops, between the storefront and the home.

Tsubo-niwa are designed to be looked at, not walked through. You’ll often see a stone lantern, a water basin, and a few carefully chosen plants. Stepping stones may lead your eye through the space, even if there’s no room to move. Today, you’ll still find tsubo-niwa in homes, restaurants, inns, and public buildings across Japan. One example from the Meiji period is the garden at Murin-an in Kyoto. Another well-known one is the tiny rock garden Totekiko, hidden inside a courtyard.

Hermitage Gardens: Retreats for Solitude

A hermitage garden is a private retreat. These were made by samurai or officials who wanted to step away from public life and focus on study, reflection, or religion. The house was rustic and simple, and the garden was small, but thoughtful. You’d usually reach it by walking down a quiet, curved path, as if you were wandering deep into the woods.

Inside the garden, you might find a small pond, a few shaped rocks, maybe a patch of moss, or a dry garden. Every piece of it was made to feel calm, quiet, and separate from the world. One well-known example is the garden at Shisen-do in Kyoto. It was built by a scholar who had been forced into exile in the 1600s. His private space later became a Buddhist temple, but it still feels like a personal retreat meant for thought and peace.

 

How Philosophy and Painting Shaped Japanese Gardens

In Japan, gardens aren't just outdoor spaces. They're seen as a fine art, just like calligraphy and ink painting. Designing a garden is not simply about beauty or balance. It’s about expressing deep thought through nature. A well-made garden teaches lessons from Zen Buddhism and Daoist philosophy, without using words. Everything placed in the garden (every rock, pond, and plant) is meant to show something deeper.

Some of these messages are direct. At Saihoji Temple, there’s a pond shaped like the cursive form of the character shin, which means heart or spirit. This isn’t the simple block-style character you’d see in print. It’s done in sōsho, the flowing calligraphy style often called "grass writing." That style feels alive and free, shaped by the writer’s mood and the moment. It fits gardening because no two strokes or gardens are ever the same. Both reflect movement, thought, and emotion. But most garden messages are quieter. They're hidden in how the rocks are grouped or how water moves through the space.

One common example is the lotus flower. It grows from thick mud at the bottom of a pond. But what rises above the water is a clean white flower. That contrast shows the Buddhist idea that even in suffering, a person can find clarity and peace. The roots stand for struggle. The flower stands for spiritual growth.

Zen Gardens as Living Puzzles

Japanese rock gardens, especially the dry ones, weren’t made just to look nice. They were built as mental exercises. Monks would sit beside them and try to work out the meaning behind the shapes. These gardens followed the same idea as suiboku-ga, or ink wash painting. That style also comes from Zen and uses as little as possible to say as much as possible. There’s no color. Just black ink on white paper. The point is to express something big with very few lines.

A key figure in this change was a Chinese Zen monk named Josetsu. He came to Japan around 1405 and changed how people painted and thought about art. His work broke away from the soft, dreamy scenes that came before. Instead of showing misty mountains, he used bold empty spaces and asymmetry. A tree or cliff would stand out more because the area around it was left blank. That idea had a big impact on Japanese gardens. Zen gardens use white gravel the same way Josetsu used white paper to create contrast, to show space, and to draw attention to what matters.

Josetsu’s influence reached far. He became the official painter for the shogun and left a strong mark on both painting and garden design in Japan.

Painting Principles in Garden Layout

Japanese gardens also use the same visual depth found in traditional landscape painting. These paintings are usually split into three parts: the front, the middle, and the far background. The space between each part matters. That space might be filled with moss, water, or sand, depending on the garden. These gaps help slow the eye down and create rhythm.

To make small gardens feel larger, designers used clever tricks. One was called shakkei, or "borrowed scenery." This meant using a mountain or tree that sat outside the garden as part of the view. Another method was using smaller plants closer to the edge, so the space looked deeper than it was. These illusions helped turn limited space into something that felt wide and open.

 

Famous Japanese Gardens Across the Regions

Japan protects its most beautiful and historic gardens through a national system. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology names the most important spots as Special Places of Scenic Beauty. These are selected under the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties. As of early 2007, 29 places had been listed, and over half of them are Japanese gardens. Some are also UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Gardens in the Tōhoku Region

One of the most well-known in this northern area is the garden at Mōtsū-ji Temple in Hiraizumi, Iwate. It’s a quiet and historical site with ties to early Buddhist design.

Gardens in the Kantō Region

Kairaku-en in Mito, Ibaraki is famous for its plum blossoms and open layout. In Tokyo, there are two notable gardens: Rikugi-en in Bunkyō and Kyu Hamarikyu Gardens in Chūō. Both give visitors a chance to see Edo-period garden design inside the city.

Gardens in the Chūbu Region

Kenroku-en in Kanazawa, Ishikawa is often ranked among the top three gardens in Japan. It blends six key design qualities, including spaciousness and seclusion. In Fukui, the Ichijōdani Asakura Family Gardens show off medieval garden planning in a preserved historical area.

Gardens in the Kansai Region

Kyoto is home to many of the most iconic gardens in Japan. These include the gardens at Byōdō-in in Uji, Jisho-ji (also known as Ginkaku-ji), and Nijō Castle. Rokuon-ji (Kinkaku-ji), Ryōan-ji, and Tenryū-ji are all UNESCO sites. Each offers a different take on Zen and Pure Land Buddhist design.

Other Kyoto gardens include Sanbōin at Daigo-ji, the moss-covered garden of Saihō-ji (also known as the Moss Temple), Daitoku-ji and its sub-temple Daisen-in, and the small but refined Murin-an. In nearby Wakayama, the garden at Negoro-ji stands out with its historic temple layout.

Gardens in the Chūgoku Region

The Adachi Museum of Art in Shimane is famous for its modern take on traditional design and has received high praise for its layout. Okayama's Kōraku-en is one of Japan's three great gardens, with a wide open feel. Smaller but still important are Matsue Vogel Park and Shūraku-en in Tsuyama.

Gardens in the Shikoku Region

Shikoku’s Ritsurin Garden in Takamatsu is one of the largest and most beautiful in the country, with paths winding through hills and ponds. Nakatsu Banshoen in Marugame and Tensha-en in Uwajima are also well-known for their seasonal beauty.

Gardens in the Kyushu Region

Suizen-ji Jōju-en in Kumamoto is a compact garden that features a miniature version of Mount Fuji. In Kagoshima, Sengan-en combines a grand landscape with a backdrop of active volcanoes.

Gardens in the Ryūkyū Islands

Shikina-en in Naha, Okinawa blends local Ryukyuan features with Chinese and Japanese elements, reflecting the island’s history as a cultural crossroads.

Imperial Gardens Outside Ministry Control

Imperial gardens are not included in the government’s official list because they fall under the Imperial Household Agency. Still, two of these gardens are considered unmatched in their design.

Katsura Imperial Villa is a masterpiece of architecture and garden planning, showing off wide paths and water features designed with incredible precision. Shugaku-in Imperial Villa sits on a hillside and offers views that stretch across the city, using borrowed scenery to create depth and distance.