The History and Craft of Japanese Netsuke
What Netsuke Really Are
Netsuke are small, hand-carved sculptures from Japan. At first glance, they look like little works of art. And they are. But they started out as simple, practical tools. Back in the 1600s, men wore kimono, which didn’t have any pockets. So they needed a way to carry personal items like tobacco, pipes, money, or seals. That’s where netsuke came in.
A netsuke was used to hold a hanging object, called a sagemono, in place on the kimono sash, or obi. These sagemono could be pouches, baskets, or most often, small boxes called inrō. The cords from the inrō passed through a sliding bead, called an ojime, and were secured at the top with the netsuke, which worked like a button or stopper. It kept the container from slipping through the sash.
From Basic Toggle to Art Object
In the beginning, netsuke were pretty basic. Just carved buttons meant to do their job. But over time, Japanese artisans turned them into something more. As time passed, these small toggles became a way to show off artistic skill. People started carving them in more elaborate shapes. Some looked like animals. Some looked like people, gods, or creatures from folklore. Some were abstract. The carvings got more detailed. The materials got fancier. Ivory, wood, lacquer, and even ceramics were used.
By the Edo period, which ran from 1603 to 1867, netsuke had become highly prized. They weren’t just tools anymore. They were expressions of personal style and craftsmanship. Some were simple, others incredibly detailed. But all of them said something about the person who wore them.
Netsuke and Changing Japanese Fashion
Things changed fast during the Meiji period, from 1868 to 1912. Japan opened up to the West, and Western clothing started to replace the traditional kimono. That meant fewer people wore kimono every day, so fewer people needed netsuke, inrō, or ojime.
But Western collectors noticed. As netsuke started disappearing from daily use, they became more popular abroad. European and American collectors picked them up, especially in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. That’s why many of the world’s best netsuke collections are now outside of Japan.
Netsuke Today: Old Craft, New Market
Even now, netsuke are still being made. Some artists carry on the tradition with new designs. Others make careful replicas of older pieces. Modern netsuke can sell for high prices in places like Japan, the US, the UK, and across Europe. At the same time, affordable versions are sold in museum shops and tourist spots. Whether you’re a serious collector or just looking for a small souvenir, there’s something out there.
What the Word Netsuke Means
The word netsuke comes from two Japanese characters: ne, meaning “root,” and tsuke, meaning “to attach.” Together, it simply means “something attached at the base.” In American English, you’ll often see it written in italics. In British English, it’s usually left plain.
Types of Japanese Netsuke: Traditional Forms and Their Features
Anabori Netsuke: Hollowed Carvings with Depth
Anabori netsuke are a special type of carved sculpture that’s hollowed out in the center. The word “anabori” means “dug-out” or “hollowed,” which fits the form. These usually fall under the broader category of katabori netsuke, but they have an open space inside. Most anabori netsuke feature clams or other shellfish. The empty space inside adds to the look and sometimes plays a part in the story or symbolism of the piece.
Kagamibuta Netsuke: Mirror-Lid Design with Metalwork
Kagamibuta netsuke look like round buns, similar to manjū, but they come with a twist. The top is made of metal, crafted into a lid that fits over a shallow bowl. That bowl is often made of ivory or another hard material. The metal surface is where the artistry really stands out. You’ll see intricate decoration using many traditional Japanese metal techniques. This mix of metal and carving makes kagamibuta pieces some of the most detailed and eye-catching netsuke forms.
Karakuri Netsuke: Mechanical Tricks and Moving Parts
Karakuri netsuke bring a playful element into the mix. These are trick netsuke that include moving parts or small mechanical features. Sometimes they open up to reveal something hidden inside. Other times, pieces rotate or shift to show a second image or form. The name “karakuri” points to traditional Japanese automata and mechanical toys. These netsuke are fun, surprising, and full of creativity.
Katabori Netsuke: The Classic Rounded Sculpture
Katabori netsuke are what most people picture when they think of netsuke. They are fully three-dimensional figures carved in the round. The shape is compact, and the carvings are usually one to three inches tall. This is the most common and familiar type. These figures often show animals, people, gods, or mythical creatures. Katabori netsuke are detailed, expressive, and were made to be touched and handled.
Manjū Netsuke: Flat, Round, and Carved in Relief
Manjū netsuke are flat and round, shaped like the Japanese sweet they’re named after. Most are made from one solid piece, though some are crafted from two halves fitted together. The carving on a manjū netsuke is usually done in relief, meaning the design is raised from the surface instead of carved in deep. These netsuke often show scenes, patterns, or symbolic images, and the circular shape gives artists a lot of space to work with.
Men Netsuke: Masks with Personality
Men netsuke are modeled after traditional masks, especially those used in Noh theater. “Men” means “face” or “mask” in Japanese. These carvings are full of emotion and fine details. They capture expressions and features with bold lines. Men netsuke sit somewhere between katabori figures and the flatter styles like manjū and kagamibuta. This form is second in popularity only to katabori.
Obi-hasami: A Hidden Netsuke with Visible Curves
Obi-hasami netsuke are long and slightly curved, made to sit behind the obi. Only the curved ends peek out above and below the sash. The shape is simple, but the placement makes it unique. These pieces don’t usually have elaborate carvings, but the form itself stands out because of how it fits with the kimono.
Ryūsa Netsuke: Light and Lacy Designs
Ryūsa netsuke are carved in a way that lets light pass through them. They have the same round shape as manjū, but instead of a solid surface, they feature openwork carving. The result looks like lace or delicate webbing. These pieces are intricate, lightweight, and visually striking. The name “Ryūsa” comes from the artist who first popularized the style.
Sashi Netsuke: Long, Slim, and Meant to Be Worn
Sashi netsuke are longer than most. The word “sashi” means “to stab” or “to insert,” and that’s exactly how they were used. These netsuke slide behind the sash vertically, sticking out like a decorative rod. They’re shaped more like a stick or a slim gourd, sometimes up to six inches long. Before carved netsuke became common, everyday items like sticks were used this way. The sashi form keeps that original idea but turns it into something refined and intentional.
Materials Used to Carve Netsuke
Ivory and Its Alternatives Today
For a long time, ivory was the go-to material for carving netsuke. It was easy to shape, strong, and smooth. Most antique netsuke were made from elephant ivory. But once the ivory trade from live elephants became illegal, artists had to look for other options. Today, mammoth ivory is a common substitute. Huge deposits of it are still found in Siberia and parts of the Near East. It's legal, easy to work with, and fills a lot of the demand in the souvenir market.
Wood Used in Traditional Netsuke
Boxwood was another favorite material in Edo Japan. It still is. Carvers used it because it was tough, fine-grained, and held details well. Other hardwoods were also used. These include cherry, zelkova, and mulberry. Each type gave netsuke its own feel and finish, and many carvers still stick with wood today for both traditional and modern designs.
Metal Details and Kagamibuta Lids
While full netsuke made of metal are rare, metal shows up often as decoration. It's most often seen in kagamibuta, a special type of netsuke with a metal lid. Artists used different metals like silver, gold, copper, and alloys to add color, texture, or contrast to wood or ivory bases.
Hippopotamus Tooth and Boar Tusk
Since elephant ivory isn’t legal anymore, hippo tooth has become a substitute. It has a similar hardness and texture. It's legal in many places and works well for detailed carving. Boar tusk is another option, though less common. Carvers from the Iwami region used it more than others, usually for small, compact pieces.
Rare Materials Like Rhinoceros Horn and Porcelain
Rhinoceros horn was once used, but it's rare and now heavily restricted. Clay and porcelain also appear in some netsuke, though they’re fragile and less common than wood or ivory. These materials were mostly used for painted or molded designs rather than fine carving.
Lacquer, Cane, and Other Organic Materials
Lacquer netsuke often cover a base of wood. These are built up in layers, then polished smooth. Some netsuke were even woven from cane, giving them a lightweight, textured feel. These are rare but still part of the tradition.
Hornbill Ivory: A Rare Carving Material
One of the most unique materials used in netsuke is hornbill ivory. It doesn't come from elephants or any mammal at all, but from a bird called the helmeted hornbill. The ivory-like part is the solid growth above the bird’s beak. It’s creamy yellow and turns reddish at the top and edges. It’s softer than true ivory, so it’s easier to carve, but it still has a dense, rich texture. Despite the name, it’s not actually ivory, bone, or horn, but it’s been called ivory for centuries.
Umimatsu, or Black Coral
Another unusual material is umimatsu, often called black coral. It looks like wood, but it’s really made from a marine animal. The word literally means “sea pine.” It has a deep black color, with reddish or amber patches that run through it. It’s hard, smooth, and takes polish well, which makes it a good option for netsuke. It’s dense and full of fine rings, much like tree growth patterns.
Umoregi: Fossilized Wood That Looks Like Ebony
Umoregi is a tricky one. Some call it fossilized wood, others say it’s more like jet. Either way, it’s not normal wood. It forms when trees like pine or cedar are buried underground and carbonized over millions of years. Most of it comes from around Sendai, Japan. The pieces are dark brown, almost black, with a smooth surface and a grain that looks a bit like lacquer. It’s shiny, takes polish well, and has been used in many detailed carvings, though it tends to crack more easily than other materials.
Walrus Tusk and Its Distinctive Look
Walrus tusks have also been carved for centuries. These long teeth can be up to two feet long and are strong, dense, and full of interesting textures. The inside has a cloudy, mottled section that shows up in carvings. You’ll often see this in manjū netsuke, especially ryūsa manjū, where that translucent part is exposed at the edges. It makes walrus tusk netsuke easy to spot.
Baleen from Sperm Whales
Another carving material is baleen, which comes from sperm whales. These whales have huge jaws lined with long, thick teeth. The biggest teeth, especially the ones in the middle of the jaw, are often used by carvers, especially in scrimshaw. These pieces are strong and hold fine lines well, making them another alternative to ivory.
Whale Bone and Its Unique Texture
Whale bone has been used in netsuke carving, though it’s not as common as ivory or wood. All bone has a hollow center filled with spongy tissue. When you cut across bone, you’ll notice small dark dots. These are tiny holes in the structure. If you look along the grain, you’ll see thin dark lines. These are narrow channels that run the length of the bone. Bone has a duller finish than ivory. It’s more opaque and doesn’t polish as brightly, which makes it easier to tell apart once finished.
Teeth from Other Animals
Carvers haven’t just used elephant or walrus tusks. They’ve also used other large animal teeth. Boar tusks, bear teeth, and even tiger teeth have all been used. These teeth can vary in density and texture, but they all hold carved details well. They’ve been especially useful when ivory or other common materials were hard to come by.
Tagua Nut or Vegetable Ivory
The tagua nut comes from the ivory palm, native to South America. It's often called vegetable ivory because of how closely it resembles real ivory. These nuts are hard, dense, and smooth when dry, and they can be carved when soaked. Finished tagua carvings sometimes show the original shell, which has a rough, coconut-like texture. The inside is off-white, sometimes with a light yellow tint. While tagua is often sold as a legal ivory substitute, it doesn’t have the same surface striations you see in real animal ivory.
Walnut Shell Carvings
Some netsuke were made from the actual shell of a walnut, called kurumi in Japanese. These are rare and often made in the katabori style, which means sculpted in the round. The shell would be cleaned out first. One method involved inserting a tiny worm to eat the nut meat. Once hollowed, the shell was carved with open latticework, then polished and sealed. Artists would completely reshape the surface, leaving nothing from the original nut visible. The result was a lightweight but detailed netsuke.
Bamboo and Its Natural Grain
Bamboo netsuke are uncommon, but they do exist. Artists usually worked with the stem or the root. The root was the preferred part, especially the small, solid section where it joins the rhizome underground. This section had a dense texture, perfect for rounded carvings. The surface of bamboo root takes on a rich patina over time. Some netsuke keep the natural bamboo texture, while others are carved all over. Either way, the grain and feel of bamboo makes each piece distinct.
Agate and Its Polished Finish
Agate is a mineral, not a plant or bone. It comes in layers of many colors, which makes it stand out. Carved agate netsuke are polished to a high shine. Because it’s a hard stone, carving it takes more effort and skill. But when finished, agate netsuke are smooth, colorful, and almost glass-like.
Ivorine: A Man-Made Ivory Substitute
Ivorine is a modern material, made to meet the tourist demand after elephant ivory became illegal. It's made from ivory dust, collected during the carving of legally sourced tusks or fossil ivory. The dust is mixed with clear resin and then pressed and hardened. Once dry, it behaves like ivory during carving. It has no natural grain, so it looks smoother. Some ivorine pieces are artificially aged with stains to mimic the yellowed look of antique ivory. While it can pass for the real thing at first glance, closer inspection usually gives it away.
What Netsuke Say About Japanese Society
Netsuke do more than just show off craftsmanship. They reveal the culture that made them. Japan was isolated for centuries, both by its geography and by strict government policies. People had very few ways to express themselves openly. Because of that, netsuke became more than just clothing accessories. They became a quiet outlet for creativity, humor, belief, and personal identity.
Through these tiny carvings, you can see nearly every part of Japanese life. The designs cover folklore, religion, daily jobs, family life, mythical creatures, and objects from everyday routines. Over time, the subjects carved into netsuke changed. Early on, many designs pulled from Chinese themes. But as Japan’s own identity grew stronger, the focus changed. Later netsuke show more local traditions, more homegrown stories, and more images tied directly to Japanese life.
People and Personalities in Netsuke Carvings
Human figures show up all the time in netsuke. Some are well-known characters from history or myth. Others are everyday folks. You’ll find children, monks, warriors, farmers, and entertainers. Some are imagined, some are real. Carvers paid close attention to expression and movement, turning simple figures into small snapshots of emotion and character.
Jobs, Tools, and Daily Work
Many netsuke also show people working. A fisherman hauling in a catch. A woodcutter swinging an axe. A merchant with a stack of wares. Sometimes the design shows the full action. Other times, it just shows the tools of the trade. For example, a carved apple might hint at a fruit vendor or orchard worker. These designs turn jobs into symbols, giving insight into how people lived and what they valued.
Animals and Natural Forms
Animals appear often, too, especially the twelve from the Japanese zodiac. You’ll also see frogs, rabbits, monkeys, and birds. One creature shows up a lot with a bit of a twist: the octopus. In classic netsuke, octopuses sometimes have nine tentacles instead of eight. And if you look close, some of these sea creatures are wrapped around beautiful women. It’s a mix of nature, fantasy, and hidden meaning.
Plants, Seeds, and Fruit
Plant life shows up in the carvings as well. Chestnuts, beans, and other small foods are often carved in their real size. You can find gourds, flowers, mushrooms, and stalks of grain. These small details often carry extra meaning. For example, certain plants were tied to good luck, long life, or health.
Spirits, Gods, and Mythical Beasts
Religious and mythological figures are common in netsuke. Many come from Japanese folklore, but some have roots in Chinese stories. The Seven Lucky Gods appear often. So do dragons, demons, and spirits. These carvings reflect spiritual beliefs and show how deeply myth was tied to daily life.
Objects and Everyday Tools
Not every netsuke shows a person or animal. Some just show a single object. These include things like roof tiles, coins, lanterns, or tools. These netsuke are simpler in shape, but still full of meaning. They remind us how even the smallest things were worth carving and preserving.
Patterns and Abstract Symbols
A smaller group of netsuke designs are purely abstract. You’ll see mon patterns, which are family crests, or other repeating designs. These aren’t as dramatic as carvings of people or gods, but they carry just as much weight. They often speak to family pride, rank, or tradition.
Erotic Netsuke: Hidden Messages
Some netsuke are sexual. These are known as shunga netsuke. Some show couples in intimate positions. Others are more subtle, with symbols or coded gestures. These carvings weren’t meant to shock. They were often humorous or symbolic, offering a quiet form of personal expression in a very controlled society.
Scenes from Stories and History
A lot of netsuke go beyond single figures or objects. Some show full scenes, drawn from legends, plays, or books. You might see a famous moment from a myth or a snippet from a folktale. These pieces often pack a lot of action into a very small space.
Netsuke are small, but they carry big meaning. They’re personal, cultural, spiritual, and practical all at once. Through them, you get a clearer picture of what life in old Japan looked like, and what mattered to the people who lived it.
Famous Netsuke Artists and Their Legacy
Who Were the Netsuke Carvers?
The artists who carved netsuke are called netsuke-shi. These carvers were masters of detail, working with wood, ivory, and other materials to shape tiny but expressive sculptures. Their skill wasn’t just in carving. It was in giving personality to something small enough to fit in the palm of a hand.
One of the earliest records of netsuke artists is a book called Sōken Kishō. It was published in Osaka in 1781 by Inaba Tsūryū. The book lists over 50 netsuke-shi from the Edo period. Some of the entries include drawings of their work. It’s the oldest known catalog that documents netsuke artists and helps trace the origins of some of the most important carving schools in Japan.
Well-Known Artists from the Edo Period
One of the most famous netsuke artists listed in Sōken Kishō was Tametaka. He worked in Nagoya and started what’s now known as the Nagoya school. His pieces are highly valued by collectors and often bring in high prices at auctions. After him came Ikkan, another well-known artist from the same area. Ikkan followed the Nagoya style and carved works that are now held in major collections around the world.
The Sōken Kishō gives us a long list of other carvers who were respected during the Edo period. These artists didn’t just make useful toggles. They turned everyday tools into fine art. Their netsuke captured people, animals, myths, and scenes from daily life. Each piece told a story, packed with emotion and meaning.
List of Netsuke Masters from Sōken Kishō
These are some of the carvers named in the Sōken Kishō: Hōgen Shūzan, Unju Tōshumemaru, Ogasawara Isai, Miwa, Waryū, Myōgaya Seishichi, Kurobē, Negoro Sōkyū, Tatsuki Kanzō, Mata Uemon, Unpo Kajun, Minkō, Haruchika, Tomotada, Kanjūrō, Tawaraya Denbē, Garaku, Tametaka, Kawai Yoritake, Sōtaka Heishirō, Hōgen Shūgetsu, Hōshin, Satake Sōshichi, Ryūsa, Kōyōken Yoshinaga, Jūzō, Shibata Ichibē, Masanao, Okatomo, Inzai, Zeraku, Sanko, Yoshibē, Tsuji, Mata Tomofusa, Jirobē, Kame Hiyago, Washōin, Seibē, Gechū, Ōmiya Kahē, Tamaharu, Daikokuya Tōemon, Tomotane, Kashū, Nagaota Ichirō, Takeuchi Yasuei, Yoshimoto, Mitsuharu, Demeuman, Toshimaya Ihē, Karamono Kuhē, and Ichiraku.
Each of these names represents a style, a technique, or a story. They all helped shape netsuke into what it became: not just an accessory, but a form of Japanese fine art.
The Iwami School and Its Founder
Another name that stands out is Seiyōdō Tomiharu. He lived from 1733 to 1810 and founded the Iwami school of netsuke carving. His work is known for natural themes and subtle detail. The Iwami school became one of the most important groups in netsuke history, and Tomiharu’s influence carried through generations of carvers.
Where to See Netsuke Today
You can find netsuke in major museums around the world. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, and the Toledo Museum of Art all have strong collections. In the UK, both the British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum have their own netsuke holdings.
These collections show just how far netsuke have traveled from Japan. Many of the most detailed, high-quality pieces are now housed in Western institutions. That’s because netsuke became popular among foreign collectors in the 19th and 20th centuries, especially as Japan began to open up during the Meiji era. These small objects, once made for everyday use, became admired abroad as examples of fine miniature carving.
Japan’s Only Netsuke-Only Museum
Back in Japan, there’s only one museum focused entirely on netsuke: the Kyoto Seishu Netsuke Art Museum. It’s located in Kyoto and sits inside a restored samurai home from the late Edo period. The building itself feels like stepping into the past. Inside, there’s a rotating display of 400 netsuke from a permanent collection of over 5,000 pieces.
This museum mainly highlights modern netsuke by contemporary carvers, but there are also historical pieces from the Edo period. The displays change every three months, so there’s always something new to see. The museum gives visitors a chance to see how the art form continues today while staying rooted in tradition.
The Tokyo National Museum’s Important Netsuke Collections
The Tokyo National Museum holds two of the most significant netsuke collections in Japan. One was donated by Go Seinosuke, a businessman and collector who lived from 1865 to 1942. He gathered over 270 high-quality pieces carved by well-known artists from the Edo to Meiji periods. Go was worried that too many netsuke were being exported and disappearing from public view in Japan. So he gave his collection to the museum to help preserve them at home.
The other major collection at the Tokyo National Museum comes from Prince and Princess Takamado. They gathered 500 modern netsuke created by living artists. The museum displays 50 of these pieces in a small room dedicated just to contemporary netsuke. Together, the two collections show how the art form has developed from its roots to the present.
To celebrate its 150th anniversary, the museum exhibited all 274 netsuke from the Go Seinosuke collection from November 2, 2022, to January 22, 2023. It also put all 500 netsuke from the Takamado collection on view from November 15 to December 25, 2022. It was the first time both full collections had been shown at once.
More Than Just Decorative Carvings
At first glance, netsuke might seem like small sculptures meant to be admired in a display case. But if you turn one over, you’ll notice something unusual: two small holes on the back or bottom. These holes were not random. They were part of the function. The cord from the sagemono was threaded through the holes, and the netsuke acted as a toggle to keep the container from slipping through the obi, or sash, of a kimono.
Because traditional Japanese clothing didn’t have pockets, netsuke were worn every day by people from all walks of life. Some were plain and practical. Others, especially those worn by the wealthy, were ornate and made to stand out. Carving a netsuke wasn’t just about skill. It was about creating something that balanced beauty with use.
Whether in museums around the world or still being carved by modern artists, netsuke continue to tell the story of Japanese culture, craft, and everyday life.
