What a Mosaic Is
A mosaic is a design or picture made from small, colored bits of stone, glass, or ceramic. These pieces sit in place thanks to plaster or mortar. You’ll see mosaics on floors and walls. The ancient Romans loved them.
Today, mosaics go beyond murals and pavements. People make mosaic artwork, hobby crafts, and even industrial or construction items.
Where Mosaics Began
Mosaics date back to Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC. Early examples include pebble mosaics found in Tiryns, Ancient Greece. In classical Greece and Rome, mosaics grew into detailed patterns and images. By the 4th century, early Christian basilicas added mosaic walls and ceilings.
From the 6th to the 15th centuries, the Byzantine Empire made mosaics thrive. That style spread into Norman Sicily in the 12th century, influenced the Republic of Venice, and appeared in Rus territories. Mosaic art took a step back during the Renaissance, though masters like Raphael still used the method. Roman and Byzantine art also inspired Jewish artists. You find 5th and 6th century synagogue floors in the Middle East decorated with mosaics.
Mosaic in Islamic Art
Early Islamic architecture borrowed figurative mosaic styles, though they usually dropped human figures in major buildings. Think of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. But after the 8th century, most Islamic mosaics moved away from figural scenes, favoring geometric styles. This included techniques like zellij, which remain popular in parts of the Islamic world.
Modern Mosaic Today
Mosaic art hasn’t gone away. Artists and craftspeople across the globe keep reinventing it. They use sand, stone, ceramic, stained and enameled glass, as well as everyday objects like shells, beads, charms, chains, gears, coins, even bits of costume jewelry.
Traditionally, mosaics are made of small, squareish cubes of stone or handmade glass enamel called tesserae. The first mosaics used natural pebbles to strengthen floors. In mosaic skinning, artists cover objects with thin glass pieces - both enameled and opaque stained types. Today, you’ll see mosaics made from all kinds of materials, from carved stone and bottle caps to found objects.
Ancient Roots
The oldest mosaics using mixed materials were discovered in a Mesopotamian temple at Abra, dating to the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. These mosaics used colored stone, shell, and ivory. Later digs at Susa and Chogha Zanbil revealed the first glazed tiles from around 1500 BC. But they didn’t create mosaic patterns until the Sassanid Empire and Roman times.
Bronze Age and Ancient Greek Pebble Mosaics
Bronze Age pebble mosaics appear at Tiryns in Greece. By the 4th century BC, the Macedonian palace-city of Aegae had them too. In 1916, archaeologists found “The Beauty of Durrës,” a 4th‑century BC mosaic in Albania. It’s one of the earliest mosaics with human figures. The Greek figure‑style really took shape in the 3rd century BC.
Mythical scenes, hunting images, or depictions of rich‑life scenes were common. These figures sat at the center of bold, geometric frames with heavy borders. In his writings, Pliny the Elder praises an artist named Sosus of Pergamon. He describes a mosaic showing leftovers from a feast and another featuring a group of doves drinking from a bowl. These themes were popular and widely replicated.
Greek figure mosaics likely copied paintings. Back then, paintings were held in high regard. Romans caught onto this style too. They used large floor mosaics in their homes and villas, stretching from Britain all the way to Dura‑Europos.
What Makes a Mosaic
A mosaic is art made by snugly fitting small pieces to form a complete image. Artists use marble, stone, glass, pottery, mirror, foil‑backed glass, or even shells.
The name “mosaic” comes from the Italian word “mosaico,” which comes from Latin “mosaicus,” and before that Greek “mouseios,” meaning “belonging to the Muses,” or artistic. Each tiny piece is called a tessera - that’s singular. Plural is tesserae. The gaps between the tesserae, filled by grout, are interstices. “Andamento” describes how tesserae flow or move across the design. “Opus,” Latin for “work,” refers to the technique, how pieces are cut and set.
Mosaic Techniques
Opus regulatum is a strict grid. Tesserae line up neatly in both rows and columns. Opus tessellatum lines tesserae up in rows – horizontal or vertical – but not both. Opus vermiculatum uses tesserae to trace a shape’s outline, like letters or a central motif. If that tracing fills the whole background, it’s called opus musivum. Opus palladianum, or “crazy paving,” arranges tesserae in irregular shapes instead of rows. Opus sectile uses a single stone piece to form a notable shape, like a heart, letter, or animal, an earlier version of pietra dura. Opus classicum mixes vermiculatum with tessellatum or regulatum for contrast. Opus circumactum arranges pieces in overlapping half‑circles or fans. Micromosaic uses extremely small tesserae, often seen in Byzantine icons or Renaissance jewelry panels.
Three Main Mosaic Techniques
There are three basic ways to make a mosaic: the direct method, the indirect method, and the double indirect method.
The Direct Method
With the direct method, you glue each tile or tessera straight onto the surface you're covering. This works best for objects with curves or shapes, like vases. It’s the same approach used in old European wall and ceiling mosaics. Artists would sketch the design on the wall first, then stick the tiles on top of the drawing. Sometimes, when old mosaics fall apart, you can still see those original outlines underneath.
This method is good for small projects that you can move around. You also get to see the mosaic as you build it, which helps you tweak colors or fix the layout as you go.
But there are some downsides. You have to work directly on the final surface, which can get uncomfortable, especially for big projects. Also, it’s tough to make the surface totally even. That’s a problem if you're making something like a floor or table that needs to be flat and level.
There’s a newer version of this method called the “double direct” approach. Here, you build the mosaic directly on a fiberglass mesh. The full design stays visible while you work. Then you can move the finished piece to wherever it needs to go. For bigger pieces, artists cut the mosaic into sections for shipping, then reassemble them on-site. This lets you work in a studio instead of on location, which is more convenient.
The Indirect Method
The indirect method is usually used for large mosaics, repeating patterns, or projects that need to fit a specific shape on-site. With this method, you press each tessera face-down onto a sheet of paper using glue that washes away with water. The whole thing gets built in sections in the studio.
Once it's ready, you take it to the final spot and cement it in place, paper side out. After that, you wet the paper and peel it off.
This method works well when you need to spend time adjusting the layout. It also lets you glue everything down in one go and still keep the surface flat. That matters when you’re working with materials that have different thicknesses. It’s a common choice for large-scale mosaics like murals, benches, or tabletops because it creates a smooth, even surface.
Roman Mosaic Artists
Most Roman mosaic makers had Greek names. That tells us Greeks led the high-quality work across the empire. Most common craftsmen were likely slaves. You can still find impressive mosaic floors in Roman villas across North Africa. Carthage is a good example. A large collection still resides in the Bardo Museum in Tunis, Tunisia.
Greco‑Roman Mosaic Techniques
There were two main mosaic methods in Greco‑Roman times. The first, opus vermiculatum, used tiny tesserae. These cubes were often just 4 mm or smaller. Workshops made them in panels. Then they glued these panels onto temporary backing and shipped them to the site. This method let artists achieve fine detail and mimic painting. Small panels called emblemata often decorated walls or highlighted larger floor pieces made with rougher work. The second method, opus tessellatum, used bigger tesserae and artists laid it directly on the floor.
Romans in Italy also developed a cheaper native version. They used black tesserae on a white background. It wasn’t as colorful, but it was more affordable.
Mosaic in Imperial Rome
In Rome, Emperor Nero used mosaics in the Domus Aurea around 64 AD. These covered parts of walls and ceilings. You also find wall mosaics in Pompeii and nearby towns. But figural wall mosaics didn’t gain real momentum until the Christian era.
The church of Santa Costanza, meant as a mausoleum for imperial family members, has both religious mosaics and secular ceiling designs on its round vault. Those ceiling mosaics probably mirror the style of palace decoration at that time.
The Villa Romana del Casale
The Villa Romana del Casale in Sicily holds the world’s largest group of late Roman mosaics still in place. This early fourth century villa, likely built by Emperor Maximian, was shielded by a landslide in the twelfth century, which kept the mosaics safe for 700 years. The site includes the Circus Scene, a 64-meter Great Hunting Scene, the Little Hunt, the Labours of Hercules, and the famous Bikini Girls. The Bikini Girls show women in athletic gear resembling modern-day bikinis.
Other areas like the peristyle, imperial apartments, and baths also feature decorative and mythological mosaics. In Palermo, excavations at Piazza Vittoria uncovered two Roman homes with mosaics. Inside, you’ll find an Orpheus scene, Alexander the Great’s hunt, and a Four Seasons mosaic.
Libyan Roman Mosaics
In 1913, archaeologists discovered the Zliten mosaic in Libya. It shows gladiator fights, hunts, and daily life. In 2000, excavations at Leptis Magna revealed a 30-foot stretch of five vibrant mosaics from the first or second century AD. These illustrated scenes include a warrior versus a deer, four men wrestling with a bull, and a fatigued gladiator staring at his fallen opponent. These artworks lined the walls of a cold plunge pool in a bathhouse within a Roman villa. Experts view the gladiator scene as one of the finest mosaics ever, rivaling the famous Alexander Mosaic in Pompeii.
Mosaic Genre “Asaroton”
Romans also created a genre called asaroton, Greek for “unswept floor.” These mosaics use trompe‑l’oeil to show leftover feast foods scattered on floors in wealthy houses. It’s a playful trick of art.
Christian Basilica Mosaics
With Christian basilicas rising in the late fourth century, wall and ceiling mosaics changed toward Christian themes. The earliest examples haven’t survived. But a few do. Santa Costanza and Santa Pudenziana, both from the fourth century, still stand. In Santa Costanza’s ambulatory, winemaking putti follow a classical style. They depict Bacchus’s feast, symbolizing change; a fitting motif for a mausoleum.
At the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, you can still see parts of the original mosaic floor featuring Roman geometric patterns. The Tomb of the Julii, under St. Peter’s Basilica, includes fourth‑century vaulted tomb mosaics with Christian imagery. And the Rotunda of Galerius in Thessaloniki, converted to a church in the fourth century, once boasted high-quality mosaics. Now only fragments remain, like a band of saints in prayer before ornate architectural illusions.
Ravenna and Milan: Late Roman Mosaic Hubs
In the century that followed, Ravenna rose as the late Roman mosaic capital. Milan also took on that role in the 4th century. In Milan’s Basilica of San Lorenzo, the St Aquilinus Chapel was tiled in the late 4th and early 5th centuries. Those mosaics show Christ with the Apostles and the Abduction of Elijah. They stand out for their vivid colors, lifelike forms, and classical sense of balance and proportion.
The apse mosaic of Milan’s Basilica of Sant’Ambrogio depicts an enthroned Christ flanked by Saints Gervasius and Protasius, with angels against a gold background. It dates to the 5th and 8th centuries, though restorations have touched it over time. The baptistery that once stood nearby was covered in gold‑leaf tesserae. These were uncovered during later digs after the baptistery was demolished in the 15th century. Inside the chapel of San Vittore in cielo d’oro, from the second half of the 5th century, every surface is tiled. Saint Victor occupies the center of a golden dome, with saints standing on the walls against deep blue. The spandrels around the dome hold the four Evangelists’ symbols.
Early Christian Gems in Liguria and Gaul
Albingaunum was Liguria’s main Roman port. In the 5th century, its octagonal baptistery was decorated with striking blue‑and‑white mosaics showing the Apostles. Today only fragments remain, but they hint at the original artistry.
In southern Gaul, Massilia (modern Marseille) stayed both a busy port and a Christian hub in the 5th and 6th centuries. That city’s large baptistery once boasted the grandest floor mosaic in western Europe. Although the geometric design survives only in 19th‑century notes, excavations since the 2000s have uncovered mosaics in the surrounding episcopal buildings. Outside the city walls was the funerary basilica of Saint Victor. Most of its mosaics are lost, save a fragment of blue‑and‑green scrolls inside an arch. That basilica was later buried beneath a medieval abbey.
Aquileia and Grado: Mosaic Floors with Meaning
In Aquileia, a mosaic pavement from the original 4th‑century cathedral still exists under the later medieval church. It blends pagan imagery, like Nilotic scenes, with Christian layers of meaning, including ichthys fish motifs.
The 6th‑century Christian basilicas in Grado, Sant’ Eufemia and Santa Maria delle Grazie, also feature mosaic floors that reflect both artistry and belief.
Ravenna: A Hub of Late Roman Mosaics
In the 5th century, Ravenna became the capital of the Western Roman Empire and a core center for mosaic art. The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia stands out here. Built around 425 to 430, it’s a small, cross-shaped building with vaults covered in rich mosaics on a deep blue background. At the center, above the crossing, sits a golden cross amid a starry sky. It looks simple but feels cosmic and powerful.
Galla Placidia also founded the church of San Giovanni Evangelista. She built it in 425 after surviving a deadly storm on her voyage from Constantinople. Inside, mosaics once showed the storm, portraits of Western and Eastern imperial family members, and the local bishop, Peter Chrysologus. Sadly, almost all of these mosaics were destroyed in 1747. We only know about them through Renaissance writings.
The Ostrogothic and Byzantine Mosaic Legacy
In the 6th century, the Ostrogoths kept Ravenna’s mosaic tradition alive. We still see their legacy in the mosaics of the Arian Baptistry, Baptistry of Neon, Archbishop’s Chapel, and early mosaics in the Basilica of San Vitale and Sant’Apollinare Nuovo.
Then, after 539, the Eastern Roman Empire retook Ravenna. It became the seat of the Byzantine Exarchate. The second half of the 6th century saw a peak in Christian mosaic art here. Two outstanding examples are later mosaics in the Basilica of San Vitale and Sant’Apollinare Nuovo. In San Vitale, a mosaic showing Emperor Saint Justinian I and Empress Theodora dates to just after the Byzantine reconquest. In the Basilica of Sant’Apollinare in Classe, mosaics made around 549 tell biblical stories with bright gold and vivid colors. The apse mosaic in San Michele in Africisco, done in 545 to 547, shows a strong anti‑Arian message. Though mostly destroyed now, some pieces remain in Berlin.
Ravenna’s Last Byzantine Masterpiece
The final major Byzantine mosaic project in Ravenna was commissioned between 673 and 679 by Bishop Reparatus. Located in the Basilica of Sant’Apollinare in Classe, it shows the bishop standing next to Emperor Constantine IV in the apse. The scene echoes the famous Justinian mosaic in San Vitale, copying its style and structure.
Butrint Mosaic in Albania
The mosaic pavement in the Vrina Plain basilica at Butrint, Albania, likely dates to the late 5th century or early 6th. It came a generation before the Baptistery mosaic. You see a mix of designs like sea creatures, birds, land animals, fruits, flowers, trees, and abstract shapes. They all come together to show a paradise on earth created by God. On top of that, two large tablets with inscriptions stand out. Around the smaller tablet, you find various fish, a crab, lobster, shrimp, mushrooms, flowers, a stag, and two cross-like designs. The inscription reads: “In fulfilment of the vow (prayer) of those whose names God knows.” It’s a simple dedication. It shows the donors’ humility and reminds us that only God knows who they are.
The wide range of life in these mosaics celebrates God’s creation. Some images carry deeper meaning. The kantharos vase with vine hints at the eucharist. That symbolizes Christ’s sacrifice and the path to salvation. Peacocks, signs of resurrection and paradise, are shown eating or drinking from the vase, indicating the way to eternal life. Deer or stags point to faithful souls seeking Christ, echoing the line “As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul after thee, O God.” Birds, fish, and sea creatures can refer to baptism and the baptized Church itself.
Christian Mosaic Art in Rome
Christian mosaics also thrived in Rome. They declined during the Early Middle Ages, but some 5th century works still remain. In Santa Maria Maggiore, you find mosaics over the triumphal arch and in the nave. The 27 panels in the nave form the most significant mosaic set from that era in Rome.
Two more 5th century mosaics are lost, but we know what they looked like from 17th-century drawings. At Sant’Agata dei Goti (462–472), destroyed in 1589, Christ sat on a globe with the twelve Apostles on either side. In Sant’Andrea in Catabarbara (468–483), destroyed in 1686, Christ stands centered with three Apostles to each side and four streams flowing from the small mountain he’s on. The apse mosaic of Santa Sabina from the same period was replaced by a fresco in 1559. The original likely showed Christ with saints, seated on a hill, lambs drinking at a stream below. All three mosaics followed a similar layout.
Later Mosaics in Rome
Mosaics from the 6th century are rare in Rome. But you can still see ones in the triumphal arch of San Lorenzo fuori le Mura. The Chapel of Saints Primo and Feliciano in Santo Stefano Rotondo also holds interesting mosaics from the 7th century. That chapel was built by Pope Theodore I to serve as his family’s burial site.
Byzantine Influence in Rome (7th–9th Century)
From the 7th to the 9th century, Byzantine art shaped Roman mosaics. Look at Santa Prassede, Santa Maria in Domnica, Sant’Agnese fuori le Mura, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, Santi Nereo e Achilleo, and the San Venanzio chapel in San Giovanni in Laterano. The Lateran Palace’s dining hall, built under Pope Leo III, once had mosaics too. Most were destroyed, but a copy of the Triclinio Leoniano survives from the 18th century. Another mosaic by Pope Leo in Santa Susanna showed Christ, the Pope, Charlemagne, and Saints Susanna and Felicity. It got covered up in 1585. Pope Paschal I (817–824) added an apsidal mosaic to Santo Stefano del Cacco showing himself with a model of the church. Sadly, it was destroyed in 1607.
The Epiphany Fragment from Old St. Peter’s
The Epiphany mosaic fragment dates to the 8th century. It’s one of the few pieces left from the medieval decoration of Old St. Peter’s Basilica, torn down in the late 1500s. You’ll find this precious shard in the sacristy of Santa Maria in Cosmedin. It shows just how skilled the artists were who made the lost mosaics of St. Peter’s.
Byzantine Mosaics vs Western Europe
Mosaics were central in Byzantine culture. Their churches glowed inside with gold mosaics. The art thrived from the 6th through the 15th centuries. Most of these works vanished during wars and conquests. But what remains still offers a striking glimpse of their excellence.
Justinian’s Grand Buildings
Emperor Justinian’s iconic structures like the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, the Nea Church in Jerusalem, and the renovated Nativity Church in Bethlehem, once held rich mosaics. Sadly, none survived. We do have fragments from the mosaic floor in Justinian’s Great Palace. These show classic figures, animals, and plants against plain backgrounds. A mosaic portrait of a moustached man, likely a Gothic chieftain, is considered the most significant surviving piece from Justinian’s era. There are also bits of mosaic from the “small sekreton,” a vaulted chamber added by Justin II around 565–577. These include vine scroll designs that echo the Classical style, much like those in Santa Costanza. You can still spot floral mosaics in Thessaloniki’s two churches of Acheiropoietos, dating back to the 5th and 6th centuries.
Ravenna and Istria: Hubs of Mosaic Craft
In the 6th century, Ravenna, then the center of Byzantine Italy, became a hotspot for mosaic art. Istria also houses significant works from that time. The Euphrasian Basilica in Parentium, built mid-6th century, showcases mosaics of the Theotokos surrounded by angels and saints. In Pola, pieces from Santa Maria Formosa crafted by artists from Constantinople still survive. These show a pure Byzantine style, distinct from the mosaics in Ravenna at that time.
Iconoclasm and Mosaic Survival
The 8th-century Byzantine Iconoclasm, when figurative mosaics were banned as idols, destroyed nearly every early mosaic. A few pre-Iconoclastic treasures survived. One is the 6th-century mosaic of Christ in Majesty, also called Ezekiel’s Vision, hidden behind mortar in the apse of Thessaloniki’s Church of Hosios David. Nine mosaic panels in Hagios Demetrios Church, dated between 634 and 730, escaped destruction. Almost all feature Saint Demetrius, sometimes with worshippers. This survival might relate to nearby Muslim beliefs.
During Iconoclasm, churches replaced figural art with plain gold mosaics. Often, only a large cross adorned the apse, like in Hagia Irene in Constantinople, after 740. Similar crosses appeared in Thessaloniki’s Hagia Sophia and Nicaea’s Dormition Church. After Iconodule forces reclaimed icon use (787–797 in Constantinople; 8th–9th centuries in Nicaea), crosses in both churches were replaced with images of the Theotokos. The Nicaean church stood until 1922, when it was completely destroyed.
Iconic Images Reclaimed
And in 867, the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople got a striking image of the Theotokos with two archangels beside her. The dedication reads, “The images which the impostors had cast down here pious emperors have again set up.” Around the 870s, the Great Palace’s large sekreton was adorned with mosaics of the four major iconodule patriarchs.
The Golden Age of Byzantine Mosaics
After Iconoclasm, Byzantine art reached its peak. The Macedonian Renaissance era, from 867 to 1056, mixed respect for tradition with fresh creativity. Mosaics in Constantinople adopted the decoration style first tested in Emperor Basil I’s Nea Ekklesia. That model church is now lost, and the surviving mosaics are damaged. So scholars have to piece together the original design across different churches.
The Beauty of Hosios Loukas
Hosios Loukas Monastery has a set of Macedonian-era mosaics noted for their elegance. In the narthex, you’ll find the Crucifixion, a pantokrator, and the Anastasis above the doorways. Inside the church, the apse shows the Theotokos, along with Pentecost, scenes from Christ’s life, and images of St Loukas. These were all crafted before 1048. The scenes use minimal detail, and gold backgrounds dominate the panels.
Nea Moni on Chios
Between 1043 and 1056, Constantine Monomachos built Nea Moni Monastery on Chios. Its dome once displayed the nine orders of angels, but that mosaic was destroyed in 1822. Other panels survived. You can still see the Theotokos with hands raised, the four evangelists flanked by seraphim, Christ’s life scenes, and an Anastasis featuring a King Salomon who resembles Constantine. Compared to Hosios Loukas, these mosaics include more figures, richer detail, landscape, and setting.
Renovating the Holy Sepulchre
Between 1042 and 1048, Constantine Monomachos also restored Jerusalem’s Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Sadly, none of its mosaics remain today. Yet Russian abbot Daniel, visiting in 1106–1107, left a detailed account. He noted vibrant prophet mosaics below the ceiling and over the tribune. He mentioned a Christ image above the altar, the Exaltation of Adam in the main altar, the Ascension in the apse, and the Annunciation on the pillars next to the altar.
The Daphni Monastery Change
At Daphni Monastery, around 1100, you’ll find the best-preserved early Comnenian mosaics. They mark a change from the earlier austere, formal Macedonian style to a more tender, intimate expression. The dome features the awe-inspiring Christ Pantocrator. But the real standout is The Angel before St Joachim. That mosaic, with its pastoral backdrop, graceful gestures, and thoughtful lyricism, perfectly captures this new, delicate approach.
Hagia Sophia’s 9th‑10th Century Mosaics
The mosaics from the 9th and 10th centuries in Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, are prime examples of classical Byzantine art. The dome’s north and south tympana feature prophets, saints, and patriarchs. Above the main narthex door, you’ll spot an emperor kneeling before Christ. That dates to the late 9th or early 10th century. Over the southwest vestibule door, there’s a mosaic of the Theotokos flanked by Justinian and Constantine. Justinian offers a model of the church to Mary, while Constantine holds a model of the city. Notice both emperors are clean‑shaven, a nod to archaic style since real Byzantine rulers wore beards. Another mosaic panel in the gallery portrays Christ with Emperor Constantine Monomachos and Empress Zoe (1042–1055), showing the emperor presenting a full money sack to Christ as a church offering.
Ascension in Thessaloniki’s Hagia Sophia
In Thessaloniki’s Hagia Sophia, the dome holds an Ascension mosaic around the year 885. The scene echoes great baptistries in Ravenna - Christ surrounded by apostles, palms lining the view. That’s atypical for post‑Iconoclasm domes, which usually show only the Pantokrator.
Komnenian Mosaics: Rare but Personal
Surviving mosaics from the Komnenian era are rare, though that’s more luck than lack of production. In Constantinople, the only intact 12th‑century work is in Hagia Sophia. It shows Emperor John II and Empress Eirene alongside the Theotokos, dating from 1122 to 1134. Eirene is captured with long braided hair and pink cheeks (accurate, since her Hungarian birth name, Piroska, suggests she was a redhead). Nearby on a pier stands Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (1122), another detailed portrait. The Komnenos dynasty’s Pantokrator Monastery once held magnificent mosaics in its mausoleum, but they’ve all been lost. Outside Constantinople, Komnenian mosaics are even rarer. One exception is the “Communion of the Apostles” in the apse of Serres Cathedral.
Komnenian Miniature Mosaic Icons
During the Komnenian era, mosaic art took a bold turn. Craftsmen created tiny, exquisite icons using tesserae no larger than one millimeter. They mounted these on wax or resin, set on wooden panels. These miniature pieces were made for personal worship. The Louvre Transfiguration is a standout from the late twelfth century. Another gem is the Christ mosaic in Florence’s Museo Nazionale, which reflects a softer, more human portrayal emerging in the twelfth century.
Decline and Rebirth After 1204
When Constantinople fell in 1204, mosaic making took a serious hit. It stayed in decline for fifty years. After Michael VIII Palaiologos reclaimed the city in 1261, restoration efforts began in earnest. Hagia Sophia was one key project. Its south gallery received a massive Deesis panel - figures about two and a half times life-sized. The scale and skill make it one of Constantinople’s most powerful Byzantine mosaics.
Pammakaristos Monastery’s Hidden Treasure
In the late thirteenth century, imperial official Michael Glabas restored the Pammakaristos Monastery. Today, only the small burial chapel remains, rebuilt by his widow Martha around 1304 to 1308. Inside the dome, a traditional Pantokrator sits above twelve prophets. In the apse, a Deesis scene is unusual, likely because it served a funerary purpose.
Thessaloniki and Arta: Shared Mosaic Traditions
The Church of the Holy Apostles in Thessaloniki, built between 1310 and 1314, features a dome mosaic showing the Pantokrator and prophets. Vandals stole the gold tesserae from the background, but the original pattern is clear. Scholars believe the same mosaicists worked at both Thessaloniki and Pammakaristos. The Theotokos Paregoritissa Church in Arta, built from 1294 to 1296, also shows the stern Pantokrator with prophets and cherubim below.
The Chora Church: Palaeologan Mosaic Mastery
The pinnacle of the Palaeologan mosaic revival appears in Constantinople’s Chora Church. Though most naos mosaics are lost, three panels remain. But the exonarthex and esonarthex mosaics are the most significant cycle after those in Hagia Sophia. Commissioned around 1320 by Theodore Metochites, they blend Byzantine tradition with Italian trecento influences. The esonarthex domes showcase Christ’s ancestors. One dome, named for the Pantokrator, sits opposite one honoring the Theotokos. A key panel shows Metochites, wearing a huge turban, offering a model of the church to Christ. Surrounding walls depict the life of the Virgin and Christ, in landscapes and natural settings influenced by Italian art.
Final Byzantine Mosaics in Hagia Sophia
The last great Byzantine mosaics date to the mid-fourteenth century, also in Hagia Sophia. After an eastern arch collapsed in 1346, it took until 1355 to restore the big Pantokrator in the dome. New mosaics appeared on the eastern arch too, showing the Theotokos, John the Baptist, and Emperor John V Palaiologos. These remained hidden until rediscovered in 1989.
Mosaic Icons at the Palaiologos Court
The Palaiologos court and its nobles favored small-scale mosaic icons. These miniature works were first-rate. Two standout examples from the 14th century are the Annunciation housed in the Victoria and Albert Museum and a mosaic diptych in Florence's Cathedral Treasury. That diptych features the Twelve Feasts of the Church.
Shrinking Mosaics in the 15th Century
By the 15th century, the Byzantine Empire was in decline. The empire no longer had the funds for rich mosaic art. Churches of that time turned to wall paintings instead. That trend continued even after the Turkish conquest.
Rome’s Mosaic Revival in the 12th and 13th Centuries
The last great flowering of Roman mosaic art came in the 12th and 13th centuries. Rome found its own artistic voice. It broke away from strict Eastern styles and added more depth and realism in figures and space. You can still see that in several notable works.
The Basilica di San Clemente features stunning floral mosaics. The façade of Santa Maria in Trastevere and San Paolo fuori le Mura also show off this more naturalistic style. In 1140, the beautiful apse mosaic in Santa Maria in Trastevere broke new ground. It shows Christ and Mary together on a heavenly throne, the first time that iconographic pairing appeared. A similar theme, “Coronation of the Virgin,” is in the apse of Santa Maria Maggiore. That one comes from Jacopo Torriti in 1295. He and Jacopo da Camerino also crafted the apse mosaics in San Giovanni in Laterano between 1288 and 1294. Those were carefully restored in 1884.
The apse mosaic in San Crisogono is thought to be the work of Pietro Cavallini, the top Roman painter of the 13th century. In 1290, Cavallini added six scenes from Mary’s life to Santa Maria in Trastevere. These pieces earned praise for their lifelike figures and early use of perspective.
Above the gate of San Tommaso in Formis, an interesting mosaic medallion from 1210 shows Christ enthroned between a white and a black slave. The church was part of the Trinitarian order, known for ransoming Christian captives.
Giotto’s Grand Navicella
Between 1305 and 1313, Giotto di Bondone created the massive Navicella mosaic. You once found it in the atrium of the Old St. Peter’s. Cardinal Jacopo Stefaneschi commissioned it. It stretched across the entire wall above the southern entrance arcade facing the courtyard. The mosaic showed St. Peter walking on water. The title Navicella means “little ship”, a nod to the large vessel featured so prominently. That sail, filled by wind, looms on the horizon. This naturalistic seascape recalled the realism of ancient art. Sadly, most of it was lost during the 17th-century rebuild of St. Peter’s.
Norman Sicily’s Mosaic Golden Age
The height of mosaic making in Sicily came in the 12th century during the independent Norman kingdom. The Norman kings adopted Byzantine-style mosaics to add legitimacy to their rule. Greek mosaic artists working in Sicily formed a unique style that blended Western European and Islamic influences. The finest examples of this art are the Cappella Palatina in Palermo built by Roger II, the Martorana church in Palermo, and the cathedrals of Cefalù and Monreale.
Cappella Palatina: East Meets West
At the Cappella Palatina, you see a clear mix of styles. Its dome, built around 1142, and the eastern end of the church, completed between 1143 and 1154, are covered in classic Byzantine mosaics. You’ll find the Pantokrator, angels, and scenes from Christ’s life. Even the inscriptions are in Greek. In contrast, the nave features Old Testament scenes and depictions of Saints Peter and Paul. Those resemble mosaics from old St. Peter’s and St. Paul’s Basilica in Rome. Here, the inscriptions are Latin and date from 1154 to 1166.
Martorana Church: Byzantine Roots
The Martorana, decorated around 1143, was originally heavily Byzantine. Although parts were removed later, the dome mosaic remains. You’ll still see Christ seated in the center with four tall, bowed angels around him. The Greek inscriptions, ornamental designs, and depictions of the evangelists in the squinches appear to be the work of the same Greek craftsmen who worked in the Cappella Palatina. In the church’s former narthex stood a mosaic showing Roger II in Byzantine imperial robes receiving a crown from Christ. Beside it was another panel showing the Theotokos with Georgios of Antiochia, the church’s founder.
Cefalù Cathedral: Gothic and Byzantine Blend
Built in 1148, the presbytery of Cefalù Cathedral is decorated with mosaics. The semi-dome of the apse holds a Pantokrator image, and cherubim adorn the vault. On the walls, statues of saints appear with inscriptions in both Latin and Greek.
Monreale Cathedral: Sicily’s Largest Mosaic Collection
Monreale holds the largest mosaic display in Italy. King William II had around 0.75 hectares covered between 1176 and 1186. This monumental effort used at least 100 million glass and stone tesserae. The mosaic scenes in the presbytery resemble those at Cefalù. The narrative scenes in the nave echo those in the Cappella Palatina. A notable panel shows William II replacing Roger II, with Christ bestowing a blessing. Another depicts the king offering the model of the cathedral to the Theotokos.
Other Norman-Era Sicilian Mosaics
The Cathedral of Palermo was rebuilt under Archbishop Walter from 1172 to 1185 and included mosaic decorations. Only the 12th-century Madonna del Tocco above the western portal survives today. The Cathedral of Messina, consecrated in 1197, once matched Cefalù and Monreale in grandeur. Its mosaic cycle has suffered heavy damage and restoration. In the left apse, 14th-century mosaics still stand, showing the Madonna and Child with Saints Agata and Lucy, Archangels Gabriel and Michael, and Queens Eleonora and Elisabetta.
Mosaics in Norman Southern Italy
Southern Italy was part of the Norman kingdom, but not many mosaics from that time remain. One exception is the mosaic pavement in Otranto Cathedral, created in 1166. It shows a tree of life motif, with biblical figures, warrior kings, medieval beasts, monthly allegories, and scenes of daily tasks. Most of it is still intact. In contrast, only fragments survive of the original mosaic decor in Amalfi’s Norman Cathedral. But the mosaic ambos (pulpit screens) in Ravello’s churches show that mosaics were common in Southern Italy from the 11th to 13th centuries.
The Norman kings’ palaces in the region also featured mosaics. These secular designs showed animals and landscapes. They leaned more toward Eastern styles than the religious works did and had strong Persian influence. Notable examples include the Sala di Ruggero in the Palazzo dei Normanni in Palermo and the Sala della Fontana in the Zisa summer palace, both from the 12th century.
Mosaic Traditions in Sicily and Venice
In areas of Italy shaped by Eastern art, like Sicily and Venice, mosaics never lost their appeal during the Middle Ages. Venice’s St Mark’s Basilica is fully covered inside with ornate golden mosaics. The earliest scenes were done by Greek artists in the late 11th century. Most mosaics are by local artists from the 12th to 13th centuries, and work continued until the 16th century. In the atrium, there are 110 mosaic scenes inspired by miniatures from the Cotton Genesis, a Byzantine manuscript brought to Venice after Constantinople fell in 1204. These were installed in the 1220s.
Other key Venetian mosaic sites include the 12th-century Santa Maria Assunta Cathedral in Torcello, and the Basilica of Santi Maria e Donato in Murano, which has a restored apse mosaic from the 12th century and a mosaic floor laid in 1140. Another highlight is the San Cipriano Church in Murano, whose early 13th-century golden apse mosaic showed Christ enthroned with Mary, St. John, and saints Cipriano and Cipriana. The church was later demolished in the 19th century, and King Frederick William IV of Prussia bought that mosaic. He had it reassembled in Potsdam’s Friedenskirche in the 1840s.
Trieste and Venetian Craftsmanship
Trieste also played a role in medieval mosaic art. The apse of its San Giusto Cathedral was decorated by skilled craftsmen from Veneto during the 12th to 13th centuries.
Monastery of Grottaferrata
The monastery of Grottaferrata was founded by Greek Basilian monks and consecrated by the Pope in 1024. Inside, you’ll still find Italo‑Byzantine mosaics in the narthex and interior. On the triumphal chancel arch, twelve apostles sit around an empty throne. It suggests Christ’s ascent to Heaven. It dates from the 12th century. Above the main portal, there’s a stunning 11th‑century Deesis.
Monte Cassino Revival
After 1066, Abbot Desiderius of Monte Cassino sent ambassadors to Constantinople. He wanted seasoned Byzantine mosaicists to rebuild the abbey church. Chronicler Leo of Ostia records that Greek artists adorned the apse, arch, and vestibule. Their work impressed people of the time. Sadly, most of it was lost over the centuries. Only two fragments showing greyhounds remain in the Monte Cassino Museum. Leo notes that the abbot trained young monks in those techniques, sparking a mosaic revival in medieval Italy.
Florence Baptistery
In Florence, a grand mosaic of the Last Judgement covers the Baptistery dome. Venetian craftsmen (some unknown, perhaps including Cimabue) began this in 1225. They kept working into the 14th century to finish the ceiling.
Pisa Cathedral
In Pisa, the apse features a mosaic of Christ in Majesty. He is flanked by the Virgin Mary and St. John the Evangelist. Cimabue designed it in 1302, drawing on Monreale’s style. It survived a major fire in 1595 that destroyed much of the medieval interior.
Mosaic Facing in Italy
Mosaics in medieval Italy weren’t just indoors. They also graced façades. Take St. Mark’s Basilica in Venice. Most of its façade mosaics date from the 17th to 19th centuries, but the oldest, depicting the burial of St. Mark, dates to 1270–1275. Orvieto Cathedral boasts golden Gothic mosaics from the 14th century. They were restored many times. In Lucca, the Basilica di San Frediano displays a huge golden mosaic of Christ’s Ascension with apostles. It was designed in the 13th century by Berlinghiero Berlinghieri. And at the Cathedral of Spoleto, the upper façade shows a massive mosaic of the Blessing Christ. It’s signed by Solsternus in 1207.
Carolingian Europe
Beyond Italy, one of the earliest medieval mosaics in Europe was in Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel in Aachen. That was lost to a fire in 1650. A rare survivor is in Germigny‑des‑Prés. This small oratory was built around 805–806 by Bishop Theodulf of Orléans during the Carolingian Renaissance. A semi-dome mosaic decorates its apse. It survived, but didn’t inspire other works.
Other Medieval Sites
Only a few examples remain from the early Middle Ages. At the Abbey of Saint‑Martial in Limoges, a mosaic panel from the 9th century was found in the crypt. It uses gilded glass cubes and deep green marble, possibly recycled from ancient floors. Under the Basilica of Saint‑Quentin in Picardy, another early 9th‑century mosaic appeared. It copies antique motifs but sticks to plain colors. Lyon’s Cathedral houses mosaics dated to the 11th century for similar reasons. And at Saint‑Croix in Poitiers, fragments thought to date from either the 6th or 9th century were discovered.
Mosaic’s Decline and Survival in Western Europe
In Western Europe, fresco painting outpaced mosaics because it was faster and cheaper. Still, mosaics didn’t vanish entirely. Medieval cathedrals sometimes featured mosaic details.
In Székesfehérvár, Hungary, the Royal Basilica of the Hungarian kings featured a mosaic in the apse. Craftsmen from Venice or Ravenna likely made it in the early 11th century. Sadly, the mosaic and basilica were almost completely destroyed in the 17th century.
In Prague, St. Vitus Cathedral’s Golden Gate took its name from the dazzling golden mosaic of the Last Judgement above the portal. Venetian artists created it in the 14th century.
Crusader Mosaics in the Holy Land
In the 12th century, Crusaders in Jerusalem embraced Byzantine mosaic styles. When they rebuilt the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, they added new mosaics alongside the old ones. Very little remains today; only the “Ascension of Christ” in the Latin Chapel survives, now surrounded by modern 20th-century mosaics. Bigger fragments remain in Bethlehem’s Church of the Nativity. In the nave, you’ll find five horizontal bands depicting Christ’s ancestors, church councils, and angels. The apses display scenes like the Annunciation, Nativity, the Magi’s Adoration, and the Dormition of the Virgin. This mosaic project wrapped up in 1169, a joint effort by the Byzantine emperor, Jerusalem’s king, and the Latin Church.
A Romanian Mosaic Rediscovery
In 2003, excavations at the Bizere Monastery ruins by the River Mureş in Romania uncovered an intriguing mosaic floor. It features panels with animals, real and mythical, alongside floral, solar, and geometric designs. Some archaeologists believe it came from an Orthodox church built in the 10th or 11th century. Others see Italianate stylistic touches and think it might belong to a later Catholic monastery. The site was within the medieval Kingdom of Hungary.
Renaissance and Baroque Era
Even though frescoes became the go‑to technique during the Renaissance, some top artists still used mosaics. Take Raphael’s Creation of the World. It decorates the dome of the Chigi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo. A Venetian craftsman named Luigi di Pace brought that project to life.
Under Pope Clement VIII (1592–1605), a special group called Congregazione della Reverenda Fabbrica di San Pietro formed to finish St. Peter’s Basilica. They chose mosaics over frescoes for several reasons. First, the old basilica had mosaics. Carrying on the tradition felt right. Second, mosaics reflect light in huge, dim spaces better than frescoes do. Third, they last longer than painted canvases. Lastly, mosaics looked rich and bejeweled - perfect for showing off.
Inside St. Peter’s, you’ll find bright Baroque mosaic scenes based on works by artists like Ciro Ferri, Guido Reni, Domenichino, and Carlo Maratta. Raphael gets another nod with a mosaic version of his Transfiguration painting. From the 1600s to the 1700s, artisans like Giovanni Battista Calandra and the Cristofaris, Fabio and Pietro Paolo, helped fill the basilica with mosaic art. These pieces were sometimes sent out as gifts from the Pope.
Eastern Christian and Byzantine Tradition
In the eastern reaches of the old Roman and Byzantine Empires, think Syria and Egypt, decorating churches with mosaics remained common from the 5th to 8th centuries. Sadly, many of these works were destroyed over time. But archaeologists have uncovered fragments and whole pieces in excavations.
The standout example is the Madaba Map. Created between 542 and 570 CE, it sits on the floor of Saint George’s Church in Madaba, Jordan. Found again in 1894, it is the oldest map of the Holy Land that survives. It shows Lebanon up north, the Nile Delta down south, the Mediterranean Sea to the west, and the Eastern Desert to the east. Jerusalem stands out at the center. The map also includes lifelike images of animals, boats, bridges, and palm trees.
Mount Nebo, a major pilgrimage spot in the Byzantine era and where Moses is said to have died, features some of the oldest surviving mosaics. Discovered after 1933, its baptistery floor dates to 530 CE and covers about 9 by 3 meters. It gives us hunting and pastoral scenes set among lush Middle Eastern plants and animals.
Nearby, the Church of Saints Lot and Procopius, built in 567 near Khirbet Mukhayyat, has a floor mosaic illustrating everyday life, like grape harvesting. Close by in the ruins of the Church of Preacher John, archaeologists found two stacked mosaics. The older one stayed hidden until restoration. Because it was covered, it survived the iconoclast period intact.
Madaba’s Mosaic Legacy
Madaba stayed a key hub for mosaic art between the 5th and 8th centuries. In the Church of the Apostles, the centerpiece shows Thalassa, the goddess of the sea, surrounded by fish and marine creatures. Local birds, mammals, plants, and fruits are woven into the scene as well.
Mount Sinai’s Byzantine Treasures
Important mosaics from Justinian’s time adorn Saint Catherine’s Monastery on Mount Sinai in Egypt. Most wall mosaics in the region disappeared with the buildings, but this monastery kept its artwork intact. On the upper wall, two panels show Moses set against a landscape. In the apse, Jesus is depicted in his Transfiguration, set on a glowing gold backdrop. Around this scene are medallion bands showing apostles, prophets, and two contemporaries, Abbot Longinos and John the Deacon. This mosaic dates to about 565–566.
Jerusalem’s Lost Splendor
Jerusalem once had more mosaic-covered churches than any other city. Sadly, few survive the city’s turbulent history. The most significant remnant is the Armenian Mosaic, found in 1894 on the Street of the Prophets near Damascus Gate. It shows a flowering vine with peacocks, ducks, storks, pigeons, an eagle, a partridge, and a caged parrot. An inscription dedicates it “For the memory and salvation of all those Armenians whose name the Lord knows.” A nearby cave with human bones suggests this was a mortuary chapel.
Byzantine Floors in Palestine
In 1949, a carpet-like mosaic floor emerged in Bethany at the early Byzantine Lazarium church, built between 333 and 390. Its purely geometric design matches other mosaics of the period in Palestine, notably the Constantinian floors in Bethlehem. A second church with a simpler geometric floor went up above it in the 6th century.
Monastic Mosaics in the Judean Desert
Monasteries in the Judean Desert also feature mosaic floors. The Monastery of Martyrius, founded in the late 5th century and rediscovered in the 1980s, preserves an intact geometric mosaic in its refectory. Its church floor, though damaged, was once richly decorated. At the Monastery of Euthymius, mosaics laid during the Umayyad era followed a major earthquake in 659. The highlights include two six-pointed stars and a red chalice.
Byzantine Art in Petra
Mosaic art also thrived in Petra’s Byzantine churches. Three have been unearthed, with the most notable one found in 1990. While the walls once had golden glass mosaics, only the floors remain. A 5th-century southern aisle features scenes of the seasons. In the early 6th century, mosaics in the northern aisle and part of the southern one introduced a mix of native, exotic, and mythological animals, plus representations of the Seasons, Ocean, Earth, and Wisdom.
The Arab conquest of the Middle East in the 7th century did not end mosaic art. Arabs embraced the craft, kept the classical tradition alive, and made it their own. Under the Umayyad era, Christianity remained strong. Churches were built and restored. Some of the most significant Christian mosaics in the East were created in the 8th century, even under Islamic rule.
Church of St Stephen at Umm ar-Rasas
In 785, artisans crafted the mosaics in the Church of St Stephen at ancient Kastron Mefaa, now called Umm ar-Rasas. Uncovered after 1986, the floor is the largest intact mosaic in Jordan. The central panel shows hunting and fishing scenes. Another panel highlights the region's major cities. The decorative frame is especially elaborate. Six mosaic masters signed the work: Staurachios from Esbus, Euremios, Elias, Constantinus, Germanus, and Abdela. This mosaic covers an earlier, damaged floor from 587, found in the Church of Bishop Sergius. Nearby, archaeologists discovered four more churches with traces of mosaics.
Church of the Virgin Mary, Madaba
The final great mosaic in Madaba was made in 767 inside the Church of the Virgin Mary, discovered in 1887. It showcases a masterful geometric design, centered on a Greek inscription in the medallion.
With the fall of the Umayyad dynasty in 750, the Middle East entered a period of cultural transformation. After the late 8th century, no significant mosaics were created. Most churches were neglected, gradually ruined, and eventually destroyed. Mosaic craftsmanship faded away among Christians and vanished entirely in the Islamic community.
Mosaic in Early Medieval Rus
Mosaic art found a place in early medieval Rus too, inherited from the Byzantine tradition. Yaroslav, Grand Prince of Kievan Rus, built a large church in Kyiv modeled after Constantinople’s Hagia Sophia. Known as Saint Sophia Cathedral, it rose between 1037 and 1046, built mainly by Byzantine craftsmen sent by Emperor Constantine Monomachos. The interior featured golden mosaics on all important surfaces. The dome displayed a stern Pantokrator supported by angels. Around the drum’s twelve windows were apostles, and the pendentives held the four evangelists. In the apse stood an orant Theotokos, with a Deesis in three medallions above it. Below spread a scene of the Communion of the Apostles.
In 1108, Prince Sviatopolk II founded St. Michael’s Golden‑Domed Monastery in Kyiv. Its mosaics were clearly crafted by Byzantine artists. The Soviet authorities later destroyed the church, but most mosaic panels survived. In Novgorod, parts of 12th‑century ornamental mosaics remain in Saint Sophia Cathedral, though that church mainly features frescoes.
Ukraine saw a rare blend of mosaics and frescoes in the same buildings. The two art forms were unified by matching dominant colors. Both Saint Sophia Cathedral and St. Michael’s Golden‑Domed Monastery in Kyiv showcase this harmony. However, by the 12th century, eastern Slavic countries phased out mosaics from church decoration. Later Orthodox churches, in Russia and the Balkans, favored frescoes instead.
The Apse Mosaic at Gelati Monastery
The mosaic in the apse at Gelati Monastery in Georgia is rare. King David IV started it and his son, Demetrius I, finished it. The panel shows Theotokos with two archangels. It reflects Byzantine influence in Georgia. It also demonstrates the Bagrationid rulers’ ambition. The mosaic-adorned church could rival those in Constantinople. While Gelati remains the main survivor, fragments from early churches at Pitsunda and Tsromi show they once featured mosaics too.
Early Georgian Mosaic Discoveries
At Pitsunda Cathedral, now-destroyed 6th-century mosaic floors once echoed Roman designs. In Tsromi, 7th-century wall tesserae still cling to the plaster. You can barely make out the original design. It featured Christ standing and holding a scroll inscribed in Georgian.
Jewish Mosaics Under Roman and Byzantine Influence
Roman and Byzantine styles also influenced Jewish synagogue floors. Many fine examples come from Galilee and the Judean Desert.
Archaeologists uncovered a 6th-century synagogue in Sepphoris. This diverse town thrived from the 3rd to 7th centuries. Its mosaic blends Jewish and pagan imagery. A zodiac wheel sits in the center with Helios in his chariot. Each zodiac sign aligns with a Jewish month. Around the edges are biblical scenes like the binding of Isaac, burnt offerings, and fruit and grain rituals.
Another zodiac mosaic graced the floor of Beit Alfa synagogue, built during Emperor Justin I’s reign (518–527). It ranks among Israel’s most important finds. The floor splits into three panels: the Holy Ark, the zodiac, and Isaac’s sacrifice. Helios stands at the zodiac’s center in his sun chariot. Four women at the corners symbolize the seasons.
A third well‑preserved zodiac mosaic emerged in the Severus synagogue at Hammat Tiberias, an ancient resort town. In its 4th‑century design, Helios takes the center again, holding a celestial sphere and whip. Nine of the twelve zodiac signs remain intact. Another panel shows the Ark of the Covenant and cultic objects from the Jerusalem Temple.
In 1936, excavators uncovered Shalom Al Yisrael Synagogue in Jericho. It dates from the 5th to 8th centuries. Its floor shows the Ark, Menorah, Shofar, and Lulav. Nearby in Naaran, from around the 6th century, another synagogue mosaic survives.
Eshtemoa Synagogue Mosaic
The synagogue in Eshtemoa (modern-day As‑Samu) dates to the 4th century. Its mosaic floor shows only floral and geometric designs. No animals or people appear in the work.
Khirbet Susiya Mosaic Panels
Khirbet Susiya’s synagogue was built in the late 4th century and excavated in 1971–72. It has three mosaic panels. The eastern panel shows a Torah shrine, two menorahs, a lulav, an etrog, columns, deer, and rams. The central panel is purely geometric. The western panel is badly damaged, but experts think it pictured Daniel in the lion’s den.
Ein Gedi Synagogue Overlays
The Roman synagogue in Ein Gedi was later remodeled during the Byzantine era. A new, more detailed mosaic floor went over older plain white panels. The central design has birds surrounded by lines and patterns. It also names the zodiac signs and important Jewish figures but avoids showing human forms. This hints at a conservative community.
Byzantine Gaza Church and Synagogue Art
In Byzantine Gaza, the ban on figurative imagery was less strict. In 1966, archaeologists uncovered a synagogue near the ancient harbor. Its mosaic from 508–509 shows King David as Orpheus, named in Hebrew letters. Around him are lion cubs, a giraffe, and a snake, all listening to his lyre. Other panels are vine-leaf medallions, each enclosing an animal (lionesses with cubs, giraffes, peacocks, panthers, bears, zebras, and more). The style matches mosaics at Maon and the Christian church at Shellal, suggesting a shared artist.
Bet She’an’s House of Leontius
Between 1964 and 1972, excavators uncovered the House of Leontius in Bet She’an. It’s a unique find; a synagogue inside an inn from the Byzantine era. The colorful floor shows flowers and birds around medallions framed by vine trellises coming from an amphora. The central medallion features a menorah with the word shalom (peace).
Samaritan Synagogues at Huldah and Bet She’an
A 5th‑century building in Huldah might have been a Samaritan synagogue. Its mosaic shows Jewish symbols: menorah, lulav, etrog, but with Greek inscriptions. Another Samaritan synagogue appeared in Bet She’an, excavated in the 1960s. Its floor has only decorative motifs and an aedicule (little shrine) with cult symbols. Samaritans avoided human or animal images more strictly than Jews in the same town. That mosaic came from the same craftsmen who made Beit Alfa’s floor. One inscription uses Samaritan script.
Saranda, Albania Mosaic Synagogue
In 2003, archaeologists found a synagogue from the 5th or 6th century in Saranda, on Albania’s Ionian coast. The 20 by 24 meter site boasts vivid mosaics depicting items tied to Jewish holidays (a menorah, ram’s horn, and lemon tree). The basilica-like layout shows what looks like a Torah facade, animals, trees, and other biblical symbols. It likely became a church by the end of the 6th century.
Christian Arabia Mosaic Art
In South Arabia, two mosaic plates from the late 3rd century were found in a Qatabanian site. They feature geometric designs and grapevine patterns rooted in that culture’s traditions. Later, during the Ghassanid era, mosaic art became a key part of Christian sites. Archaeologists have found five churches with mosaics from that time. Two were built by Ghassanid rulers, and three by Christian Arab communities. The latter included names and dedications from their creators.
Mosaic in Zoroastrian Persia
Persia had tilework for nearly two thousand years. As Sassanid Persia and Rome traded culture and ideas, Persian artists began creating mosaic-style patterns. Shapur I had his palace adorned with tiles showing dancers, musicians, and courtesans. This is the only well-known example of figurative mosaic in Persia. After the Arab conquest and the spread of Islam, images like these were banned.
Islamic Mosaics in the Arab World
After Muslim armies took over eastern Byzantine lands, mosaic techniques became popular in Islamic architecture. Syria and Egypt adopted traditions from Roman and early Christian mosaics. During the Umayyad Dynasty, mosaic art thrived. Over time, tilework became the dominant form of decoration in Islamic buildings, evolving into styles like zellige and azulejo that spread across the Arab world.
Dome of the Rock
Built between 688 and 692 in Jerusalem, the Dome of the Rock was covered in glass mosaics on both its inside and outside. Byzantine craftsmen created the original work. The mosaics feature rich floral motifs drawn from Byzantine styles. They do not include human or animal figures, making them uniquely Islamic in theme.
Umayyad Mosque in Damascus
The Umayyad Mosque, completed between 706 and 715, stands on what was then the Arab Caliphate’s capital. The caliph brought in 200 Byzantine mosaic workers to decorate it. The inner courtyard mosaics show Paradise: trees, flowers, hills, and villages. They avoid human figures, setting them apart from Byzantine mosaics. The largest surviving section is under the western arcade, known today as the “Barada Panel.” It once held over 4 square meters of gold mosaic. In 1893, a fire destroyed much of the mosque’s mosaics, but some have been restored since.
Legacy and Later Restorations
The mosaics of the Umayyad Mosque influenced later works in Damascus. The Dome of the Treasury in the courtyard was redone with fine mosaics, likely in the 13th or 14th century. These resemble the Barada Panel in style. After 1277, Sultan Baibars’ mausoleum inside Madrassa Zahiriyah was built. Its prayer hall features a golden mosaic band with floral and architectural designs.
Secular Umayyad Mosaic Art
The Umayyads didn’t limit mosaics to religious buildings. They used them to decorate palace floors for caliphs and top officials. These floor mosaics borrowed heavily from Roman villa designs common in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Hisham’s Palace Mosaics
One of the finest examples is in the bathhouse of Hisham’s Palace in Palestine, made around 744. A central panel shows a tree. Beneath it, a lion attacks a deer on the right. On the left, two deer graze calmly. This scene likely symbolizes good versus bad governance.
Anjar Palace Mosaics
At the Umayyad palace complex in Anjar, Lebanon, mosaics with classic geometric patterns survive in the baths. They echo the style of Hisham’s Palace but focus on abstract shapes rather than scenes.
Qasr al-Hallabat Floor Art
The desert palace of Al-Walid II at Qasr al-Hallabat in Jordan is another standout. Its floor mosaics are highly skilled. The best-preserved panel shows a Tree of Life flanked by “good” animals on one side and “bad” animals on the other. You’ll also see vine scrolls, grapes, pomegranates, oryx, wolves, hares, a leopard, partridges, fish, bulls, ostriches, rabbits, rams, goats, lions, and a snake.
Qastal Palace Mosaics
In 2000, excavations near Amman at Qastal uncovered the earliest known Umayyad mosaics in modern Jordan. They date back to the rule of Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (685–705). These mosaics cover nearly the entire palace floor, except courtyards, entrances, and stairs. They feature geometric patterns, trees, animals, fruits, and rosettes.
Al-Andalus: Later Islamic Mosaics
Some of the most impressive Islamic mosaics appeared later in Al-Andalus. Between 965 and 970, craftsmen in Cordoba created golden mosaics for the mihrab and the central dome of the Great Mosque. A master mosaicist from Constantinople, sent by the Byzantine emperor, oversaw the work. The result blended colorful floral arabesques and broad bands of Arabic calligraphy, clearly echoing the lost grandeur of the Great Mosque in Damascus.
Change to Tilework
After the 8th century, mosaic use declined in the Islamic world. Instead, Islamic art turned to painted tilework. That included geometric designs with small tiles, like the zellige of North Africa, and larger painted tiles, known as Qashani, in Persia, Turkey, and beyond. These techniques offered the same visual impact without the complexity of mosaic.
Modern Mosaic Highlights
In the 19th century, Edward Burne‑Jones made mosaics for St Paul’s Within the Walls in Rome. Then there’s the world’s largest mosaic at the Cathedral Basilica of St. Louis in Missouri. In New York City, the Museum of Natural History subway station shows a vivid example of mosaic art, though many IND stations use plain, repetitive designs. Even Texas rest areas have local‑theme mosaics in some restrooms.
Modernism architects like Antoni Gaudí and Josep Maria Jujol used mosaics too. You see their work in Park Güell in Barcelona. Today, leading mosaic artists include Elaine M. Goodwin (UK), Felice Nittolo (Italy), Brit Hammer (Netherlands), Dugald MacInnes (Scotland), Heather Hancock (USA), Kelley Knickerbocker (USA), Aida Valencia (Mexico), Emma Biggs (UK), Helen Nock (UK), Marcelo de Melo (Brazil), Sonia King (USA), and Saimir Strati (Albania).
Mosaics are no longer just for trained artists. Hobbyists use stone, ceramics, smalti, shells, art glass, mirror, beads, and even doll parts, pearls, or photographs. Unlike ancient times when mosaics were built into buildings, today you might find them on park benches, flowerpots, guitars, bicycles, or tiny pieces like earrings. In rare cases, an entire house might be covered.
There’s a playful style called trencadís or pique assiette. It’s a French phrase meaning “stolen from plate.” Artists glue broken pottery, china, glass, buttons, figurines, or jewelry onto a base. The base can be anything. The only limit is the maker’s imagination.
Street artists bring a fresh take to mosaic too. They mix pixel‑art and pop culture into public spaces. The most famous is Invader, a French artist. He makes two types of street mosaics. One is small, traditional tile versions of 8‑bit game characters. The other is “Rubikcubism,” mosaics built from grids of scrambled Rubik’s Cubes. Many street and urban artists work in similar mosaic styles.
In Portugal and other Lusophone countries, you’ll find Portuguese pavement (or Calçada Portuguesa). It’s two‑tone stone mosaic flooring, usually in geometric shapes, but sometimes detailed images. You’ll see it on Lisbon sidewalks and streets. Though tied to older arts like Azulejo and painted tilework, it’s relatively new. Modern Calçada dates back to the mid‑1800s. They mostly use basalt and limestone.
